3 'C'~?>  u.  J ^ 

S . V . \4’2_ 

University  of  Oregon  Bulletin 

New  Series  NOVEMBER,  1916  Vol.  XIV  No.  2 


Elementary  Primer  of 
Electricity  for  Light 
and  Power  Customers 


Department  of  Industrial  and  Commercial  Service 
University  of  Oregon 
H.  B.  MILLER,  Director 


Published  monthly  by  the  University  of  Oregon  and  entered  at  the  postoffice  at 
Eugene,  Oregon,  as  second-class  matter. 


Return  this  book  on  or  before  the 
Latest  Date  stamped  below. 

Theft,  mutilation,  and  underlining  of  books 
are  reasons  for  disciplinary  action  and  may 
result  in  dismissal  from  the  University. 
University  of  Illinois  Library 


Developed  and  Undeveloped  Water  Powers  of  Oregon 

.0  J 


TOTAL  UNDEVELOPED  3^7^540  tf»l 


r_/Y\  •>-</  TOTAL  DEVELOPED  I58J86  !K> 


Guide — No.  1,  Rogue  River;  No.  2,  Umpqua  River;  No.  3,  Yaquina  River; 
No.  4,  Trash  River ; No.  5,  Columbia  River ; No.  6,  Willamette  River ; No.  7, 
Deschutes  River;  No.  8,  John  Day  River;  No.  9,  Willow  Creek;  No.  10,  Umatilla 
River;  No.  11,  Grande  Ronde  River;  No.  12,  Snake  River;  No.  13,  Imnaha  River; 
No.  14,  Pine  Creek;  No.  15,  Powder  River;  No.  16,  Alder  River;  No.  17,  Malheur 
River;  No.  18,  Owyhee  River. 


EXPLANATION 

The  following  remarks  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  interpretations  of  the 
map  markings.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  figures  relative  to  the 
horsepower  of  the  various  streams  indicated  on  the  above  map  are  merely 
approximations  and  are  not  presented  as  absolute  and  scientific  facts. 

On  the  Rogue  River,  in  Southern  Oregon,  we  find  (reading  inland  from  the 
mouth  of  the  river)  : 

P 21200,  P 66000,  P 33540,  F D 3750.  Thus  between  the  mouth  of  the  river 
and  the  first  mark  (1),  we  see  that  the  undeveloped  horsepower  is  212000. 
That  section  of  the  river  between  the  first  and  second  marks  is  capable  of  a 
development  of  66000  horsepower.  By  the  flag  (F)  and  the  figures  3750,  is 
meant  that  at  this  point  is  developed  a horsepower  of  3750. 

and  undeveloped  horsepower  of  each  stream  may  be  readily  ascertained.  The 
greatest  developea  power  at  this  time  is  found  in  the  Columbia  and  Willamette 
River  basins,  but,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  map,  the  streams  of  the  northeastern, 
north-central  and  southwestern  sections  are  capable  of  vast  development, 
central  and  southwestern  sections  are  capable  of  vast  development. 


WHITE  RIVER  FALLS  IN  LOWER  DESCHUTES  VALLEY 


ELEMENTARY  PRIMER  OF 
ELECTRICITY  FOR  LIGHT 
AND  POWER  CUSTOMERS 


WE  LiOHAfiy  OF  THE 

NOV  1 - 1929 

DIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


Published  by 

DEPARTMENT  OF  INDUSTRIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  SERVICE 
UNIVERSITY  OF  OREGON 

H.  B.  MILLER,  Dtrectok 


Salem,  Oregon  : 

State  Printing  Department 
1916 


Preface 


At  a Commonwealth  Conference  held  at  the  University  on  May  16 
and  17,  1913,  the  following  were  appointed  for  the  purpose  of  studying 
and  investigating  the  hydro-electric  interests  of  the  State  of  Oregon: 

H.  B.  Miller,  chairman,  Director,  School  of  Commerce,  U.  of  O. 

Prof.  Thos.  A.  H.  Teeter,  O.  A.  C. 

Prof.  P.  G.  Young,  U.  of  O. 

Dr.  J.  F.  Watt,  Hood  River,  Oregon. 

W.  H.  Graves,  Oregon  Society  of  Engineers,  Portland. 

J.  V.  Tallman,  Commercial  Association  of  Pendleton. 

H.  L.  Boyce,  Underwriters’  Equitable  Rating  Bureau,  Lumbermen’s 
Building,  Portland. 

Hon.  John  McCourt,  Corbett  Building,  Portland. 

Wm.  Hanley,  Burns,  Oregon. 

C.  A.  Park,  Salem,  Oregon. 

T.  H.  Burchard,  829  E.  11th  St.  N.,  Portland. 

Mrs.  Clara  Waldo,  Macleay,  Oregon. 

W.  D.  B.  Dodson,  Portland  Chamber  of  Commerce,  Secretary. 

This  committee  has  made  a complete  survey  of  the  development  of 
hydro-electric  powers  throughout  the  world  through  the  Departments 
of  Commerce  and  State  of  the  general  government  and  have  a large 
amount  of  material  on  hand  for  the  publication  of  bulletins  on  the 
subject.  This  Hydro-Electric  Commission  has  turned  over  all  of  this 
material  to  the  School  of  Commerce  of  the  State  University  with 
instructions  to  issue  sucn  bulletins  as  they  may  deem  important.  This 
bulletin  is  the  first  to  be  issued  as  the  result  of  their  investigations. 
It  probably  will  be  followed  by  another. 

The  approximate  undeveloped  horsepower  of  the  State  of  Oregon  is 
3,500,000.  The  developed  is  approximately  158,000.  There  is  already 
developed  some  30,000  horsepower  more  than  the  market  demands. 
This  development,  however,  is  in  large  quantities  and  cannot  be  easily 
distributed  for  the  purposes  specified  in  this  bulletin.  The  map 
included  in  the  bulletin  shows  that  there  are  various  streams  in  almost 
all  sections  of  the  state  with  large  undeveloped  powers.  Perhaps 
there  is  no  section  of  the  United  States  where  there  is  such  a splendid 
distribution  of  water  powers  as  in  the  State  of  Oregon.  Vast  quanti- 
ties of  minor  powers  are  susceptible  of  being  used  for  such  purposes  as 
this  bulletin  deals  with  in  a small  way.  Whether  it  is  capable  of  being 
developed  on  an  economic  basis  must  be  determined  by  each  locality. 
In  most  cases  it  is  more  economical  to  develop  in  larger  quantities  and 
distribute  from  a main  station,  but  there  are  a great  many  localities 
where  it  is  profitable  to  develop  the  very  small  powers  rather  than 
make  a long  transmission.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  developments 


4 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


o 


W.s.  v.  I4a 


of  this  nature  that  I have  discovered  is  at  the  Logan  mine  at  Waldo, 
Josephine  County,  where  the  power  is  used  not  only  in  the  operation 
of  the  placer  mines  in  lifting  the  waste  from  the  mines  some  fifty 
feet  or  more,  for  furnishing  light  for  the  mine,  but  it  is  also  used  for 
lighting  the  house  and  barn,  operating  the  churn,  washer,  for  cooking 
purposes  and  all  household  requirements.  The  Pacific  coast  is  the 
richest  part  of  the  United  States  in  waterpower,  as  more  than  half  of 
the  waterpower  of  the  entire  United  States  is  west  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  This  vast  quantity,  and  well  distributed  water  power  is 
sure  to  develop  in  time  the  cleanest  and  most  efficient  conditions  of 
industrial  and  social  activities  within  the  state. 

It  is  for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  the  development  and  use  of 
this  power  that  we  have  issued  this  bulletin. 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2017  with  funding  from 

University  of  Illinois  Urbana-Champaign  Alternates 


• \ 


https://archive.org/details/elementaryprimerOOuniv 


CHAPTER  I 


Elementary  Primer  of  Electricity  for  Light  and 
Power  Customers 

As  this  paper  is  intended  for  the  non-technical  reader,  and  as  the 
use  of  electricity  is  becoming  ever  more  nearly  universal,  it  is  perhaps 
not  inappropriate  to  discuss  first  the  unit  of  measurement  of  electrical 
energy  and  the  reason  for  the  basis  of  charge  therefor,  which  knowledge 
should  be  as  universal  as  the  use  of  electrical  energy  itself.  We  will 
make  this  explanation  simple  by  means  of  analogies  with  well  under- 
stood units  of  measurement  of  other  forms  of  energy: 

Volt,  Ampere,  Watt  and  Kilowatt 

Suppose  that  a man,  in  shoveling  loose  earth  from  the  ground-level 
into  a wagon  five  feet  high,  can  shovel  one  cubic  yard,  or  about  3,000 
pounds,  per  hour.  For  the  purpose  of  our  analogies,  we  will  call  this 
rate  of  doing  work  one  “manpower,”  which,  as  you  will  see,  is  the 
ability  to  lift  3,000  pounds  per  hour  or  fifty  pounds  per  minute  to  a 
height  of  five  feet. 

If  the  man  were  to  lift  the  material  ten  feet  high  he  might  first 
throw  it  onto  a platform  five  feet  high  and  then  climb  up  there  and 
throw  it  up  the  other  five  feet.  It  is  evident  in  this  case  that  he  would 
handle  only  one-half  as  much  earth  per  minute  but  would  raise  it  to 
twice  as  great  a height.  His  physical  effort,  or  the  true  amount  of 
work  done  would  be  just  the  same.  This  is  expressed  in  “foot-pounds” 
of  work,  which  is  the  product  of  weight  lifted  times  height  raised. 
Thus  one  “manpower”  would  be  the  ability  to  raise  fifty  pounds  per 
minute  to  a height  of  five  feet,  or  twenty-five  pounds  per  minute  to 
a height  of  ten  feet;  which  again  would  be  equivalent  to  lifting  250 
pounds  per  minute  one  foot,  or  one  pound  per  minute  250  feet  in  height, 
or  any  other  combination  of  weight  and  height  whose  product  would 
give  250  so-called  “foot-pounds.” 

Now  a “horsepower”  (usually  written  h.  p.)  is  just  132  times  what 
I have  here  used  as  a “manpower,”  or  is  the  ability  to  do  work  at  the 
rate  of  132  times  250  foot-pounds,  or  33,000  foot-pounds  per  minute, 
equivalent  to  550  foot-pounds  per  second. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  some  weight  be  actually  lifted  in  order 
to  permit  expressing  the  power  required  in  horsepower.  If  an  engine 
needs  to  pull  on  a car  with  a pull  of  500  pounds  to  move  it,  and  moves 
it  with  a speed  of  fifty-five  feet  per  second,  or  37.5  miles  per  hour, 
then  the  power  required  is  55x500,  which  is  equal  to  27,500  foot-pounds 
per  second,  or  equal  to  27,500,550,  or  50  horsepower.  If  it  requires 
a pull  of  thirty-three  pounds  on  the  crank  of  a cream  separator  to  turn 
it,  and  the  crank  travels  around  the  circle  at  the  rate  of  200  feet  per 
minute,  then  the  power  will  be  200x33,  or  6,600  foot-pounds  per  min- 
ute, or  6,600  divided  by  33,000,  which  is  equal  to  one-fifth  of  one 
horsepower.  If  you  pump  200  gallons  of  water  per  minute  to  a height 
of  fifty  feet,  or  200x8.36  (one  gallon  weighs  8.36  pounds)  equals  1,672 


8 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


pounds  of  water  per  minute  to  a height  of  fifty  feet,  you  will  need  to 
apply  useful  power  at  the  rate  of  1,672x50  equals  83,600  foot-pounds 
per  minute,  which  divided  by  33,000  gives  2.531  horsepower.  If  you 
have  a steam  engine  driving  a pump  and  it  takes  an  average  steam 
pressure  against  the  engine  piston  of  5,000  pounds  to  move  it,  and  it 
moves  at  an  average  speed  of  300  feet  per  minute,  then  the  power 
exerted  by  the  steam  is  300x5,000  divided  by  33,000,  or  45.5 
hosrepower. 

Now  the  principle  of  electrical  power  computation  is  quite  as 
simple.  The  term  “volt”  is  analogous  to  the  height  of  five  feet  through 
which  the  man  lifts  the  earth  with  his  shovel  in  filling  the  wagon,  or 
the  pressure  of  water  against  which  the  pump  must  operate,  while  the 
term  “ampere”  is  analogous  to  the  amount  of  earth  which  he  raises 
per  minute,  or  the  amount  of  water  pumped,  and  the  product  of  volts 
times  amperes  or  “watts”  is  the  power  or  rate  of  doing  work.  A “kilo- 
watt” (usually  written  k.  w.)  is  1,000  watts,  and  is  able  to  accomplish 
the  same  mechanical  work  as  1.34,  or  just  a trifle  rpore  than  one  and 
one-third  horsepower;  or,  reversing  this,  a horsepower  is  only  0.746 
kilowatts,  or  about  three-quarters  of  a kilowatt.  Thus,  in  the  previous 
illustration  the  pump  which  required  2.53  useful  horsepower  to  operate 
it  would,  if  run  by  an  electric  motor  without  losses,  require  0.746x2.53, 
or  about  1.89  kilowatts.  For  nearly  all  ordinary  purposes  it  is  suffi- 
ciently accurate  to  say  that  one  horsepower  is  three-fourths  of  one 
kilowatt,  or  that  one  kilowatt  is  one  and  one-third  horsepower. 


HGURt-I 

FIG.  1 — ILLUSTRATES  THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  AN  ELECTRIC  “CIRCUIT” 
BY  ANALOGY  WITH  THE  FLOW  OF  WATER 

The  Electric  Circuit 

Figure  1 illustrates  the  principle  of  an  electric  “circuit”  by  analogy 
with  the  flow  of  water.  At  the  left  is  a gasoline  engine  driving  a cen- 
trifugal pump  and  raising  water  through  a height  of  say  120  feet  from 
the  lower  water  surface  to  the  upper  one.  The  water  is  discharged 
into  a long  flume  which  we  will  say  is  one  mile  long  and  has  a fall  of 
five  feet  per  mile.  Many  small  water  wheels  are  scattered  along  and 
take  water  from  the  flume,  discharging  it  again  into  a lower  flume 
which  returns  it  to  the  pump  and  which  also  has  a drop  of  five  feet. 
The  water  wheels  are  used  by  small  factories  which  pay  the  owner  of 
the  pumping  plant  for  furnishing  them  with  their  water.  The  man 
who  uses  the  water  near  the  pumping  station  derives  more  power  for  the 
same  amount  of  water  than  the  man  at  the  end  of  the  flume  because 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


9 


his  useful  fall  is  120  feet,  as  compared  with  110  feet  at  the  end  of  the 
flume,  and  the  power  value  of  falling  water  is  proportional  to  the 
product  of  fall  and  quantity,  as  previously  explained.  Each  man  pays 
for  only  the  true  amount  of  power  used,  however. 

Now  the  pump  can  pump  only  the  amount  of  water  which  returns 
to  it  through  the  lower  flume,  or  the  amount  used  by  the  customers.  If 
one  customer  stops  his  water  wheel,  the  supply  of  water 
for  the  pump  is  soon  reduced  by  this  amount  and  only  enough 
water  is  delivered  to  the  pump  and  then  to  the  upper  flume  to  supply 
those  who  want  it.  The  storage  capacity  of  the  upper  flume  provides 
water  for  a wheel  when  first  started  until  the  return  water  from  this 
newly  started  wheel  gets  back  to  the  pump  and  is  pumped  up  into  the 
upper  flume  and  reaches  the  newly  started  wheel  again.  Pumping 
this  added  amount  of  water  makes  the  engine  consume  more  fuel  and 
do  more  work.  Thus,  the  pump,  up  to  the  limit  of  its  capacity,  auto- 
matically furnishes  just  enough  water  to  supply  the  customers’  demand 
at  any  moment. 

The  pump  must  be  large  enough  to  supply  the  greatest  amount 
required  by  the  customers  at  any  one  time.  If  all  the  customers  use 
their  water  wheels  at  the  same  time,  then  the  pump  must  equal  the 
total  capacity  of  all  the  wheels,  but  if  some  customers  use  power  during 
one  part  of  the  day  and  others  during  other  hours  of  the  day,  then  the 
pump  can  be  smaller  and  the  flumes  smaller.  The  complete  round  trip 
route  of  the  water  might  be  called  its  “circuit.” 


FIGURE-2 

FIG.  2— SAME  PRINCIPLE  IN  ELECTRIC  “CIRCUIT”  SHOWING 
“LINE  DROP” 

Figure  2 shows  the  same  principles  in  an  electric  circuit.  At  the 
left  is  shown  a gasoline  engine,  steam  engine  or  water  wheel  driving  an 
electrical  generator  or  dynamo  creating  a voltage  of  120  volts  in  exactly 
the  same  manner  as  the  pump  lifts  the  water  120  feet.  There  is  a loss 
in  voltage,  or  “line  drop,”  of  five  volts  in  the  upper  wire  in  the  mile 
and  another  drop  in  the  return  wire  of  five  volts,  making  the  net  voltage 
at  the  end  only  110  volts. 

When  any  customer  turns  on  an  electric  light  or  a motor,  the  effect 
is  instantly  felt  at  the  generator,  which  must  immediately  supply  more 
“amperes”  fpr  this  new  load.  In  order  to  do  so  the  engine  must  use 
more  gasoline,  steam  or  water,  because  the  generator  turns  harder 
than  before;  this  is  all  automatically  regulated  by  the  governor,  as 
might  be  the  case  with  the  pump  of  Figure  1. 


10 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


Efficiency  and  Loss  of  Power 

Now  we  really  cannot  do  work  without  some  loss  of  effort  or  wasted 
energy.  The  man  who  was  shoveling  earth  into  the  wagon  probably 
lifted  about  ten  pounds  of  earth  in  each  shovelful  which  was  useful 
work;  but,  unfortunately,  he  also  had  to  lift  the  shovel  which  would 
weigh  about  five  pounds.  Thus  he  lifted  fifteen  pounds  for  every  ten 
pounds  of  useful  work.  His  “efficiency”  or  “ratio  of  useful  work  to 
total  work”  would  then  have  been  ten  divided  by  fifteen,  or  about 
sixty-seven  per  cent. 

All  machinery  offers  a frictional  resistance  to  its  own  movement, 
and  a pipe  and  pump  offer  frictional  resistances  to  the  water  passing 
through  them,  which  friction  must  be  overcome  in  addition  to  the  useful 
work.  Thus,  if  the  200  gallon  per  minute  pump  mentioned  in  a 
previous  example  were  of  centrifugal  type  built  with  only  ordinary 
care,  you  would  need  about  five  horsepower  instead  of  2.53  horsepower 
to  operate  it,  as  its  efficiency  would  be  only  about  fifty  per  cent.  If 
you  measure  the  electrical  power  furnished  to  a motor  and  the  useful 
work  accomplished  by  the  motor,  you  find  that  the  latter  will  be  less 
than  the  former,  as  you  will  also  find  for  all  other  machinery. 

Kilowatt-Hour 

Thus,  power  is  the  rate  of  doing  work,  but  it  has  nothing  to  do  with 
the  length  of  time  the  work  is  in  progress  and  hence  with  the  amount  of 
work  accomplished.  A man  may  shovel  earth  into  a wagon  for  one 
hour  and  stop,  or  he  may  work  an  entire  day.  In  either  case  his  power 
was  one  “manpower”;  in  the  former  case  the  amount  of  work  accom- 
plished might  be  called  one  “manpower-hour”  and  in  the  latter  case 
one  “manpower-day,”  meaning  the  work  of  one  man  for  a period  of  an 
hour  or  a day.  I,f  you  run  the  five  horsepower  motor  previously  men- 
tioned and  pump  200  gallons  per  minute  until  you  have  filled  a tank 
holding  48,000  gallons,  it  would  require  48,000  divided  by  200,  which  is 
240  minutes  or  four  hours,  to  accomplish  the  purpose.  The  power  used 
was  five  horsepower  for  four  hours  or  four  times  five  equals  twenty 
“horsepower-hours”  (usually  written  h.  p.  h.),  or  if  measured  in  elec- 
trical terms  would  be  three-fourths  of  that  or  fifteen  kilowatt  hours 
(usually  written  k.  w.  h.).  You  could  accomplish  the  same  purpose 
by  using  a ten-horsepower  motor  and  a 400-gallon  pump  and  pumping 
for  only  two  hours.  You  would  consume  ten  times  two,  or  twenty, 
horsepower-hours,  or  fifteen  kilowatt  hours,  as  before,  but  your  “horse- 
power” would  be  twice  as  great  and  you  would  have  much  more 
expensive  equipment.  If  instead  of  employing  one  man  for  all  day  you 
were  to  employ  two  men  for  one-half  day  they  would  produce  two  “man- 
power” but  only  the  same  total  amount  of  work,  for  twro  times  one-half 
equals  one  (one  “manpower-day”).  In  other  words,  “power”  repre- 
sents a rate  of  doing  work,  while  power  multiplied  by  the  length  of 
service  indicates  the  actual  total  amount  of  work  accomplished  or 
“energy”  expended.  * 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


11 


Buying  the  Services  of  a Man,  a Motor,  or  an  Electric  Light 

The  principles  and  justice  of  the  usually  existing  basis  of  rates  for 
electrical  service  will  be  demonstrated  by  continuing  the  foregoing 
analogies: 

You  can  hire  a farm  hand  by  the  year,  by  the  month,  by  the  day,  by 
the  hour,  or  perhaps  even  upon  “piece-work”  basis.  If  you  hire  him  by 
the  hour,  or  even  by  the  day,  you  usually  can  keep  him  busy  during  all 
of  the  time  for  which  you  pay  him.  If  you  pay  him  by  the  month  or 
year  there  will  be  rainy  days,  dull  periods  of  the  year,  holidays,  and 
perhaps  a vacation  during  which  you  will  not  realize  the  full  value  of 
his  time.  In  fact,  you  will  be  required  to  furnish  him  with  board  and 
lodging  during  these  periods.  If  you  were  sure  that  you  could  get  a 
man  on  a moment’s  notice  who  would  be  satisfactory  help,  you  would 
not  hire  by  the  month  or  year,  but  the  individual  differences  in  men 
and  the  uncertainty  of  the  labor  market  often  makes  this  impracticable. 

When  you  hire  a man  by  the  year  you  base  your  offer  upon  how 
much  you  expect  to  use  him  and  how  much  extra  you  are  willing  to  pay 
to  be  sure  of  having  a man  when  you  want  him.  He  basis  his  acceptance 
upon  what  he  thinks  he  probably  could  earn  if  he  depended  upon  day 
labor  for  his  income  and  he  deducts  a little  to  give  a certainty  the 
benefit  of  the  doubt. 

Minimum  Charge 

Now  there  is  a minimum  price  per  year  for  which  a man  would 
hold  himself  in  readiness  to  serve  you  at  any  moment.  That  amount 
would  vary  with  the  labor  market  but  would  not  be  less  than  the  cost 
of  his  meals,  lodging,  clothes,  and  a reasonable  allowance  for  recrea- 
tion. You  might  offer  to  pay  him  at  that  rate  throughout  the  year  and 
an  additional  small  amount  per  day  or  per  hour  for  the  time  actually 
spent  in  working. 

Load  Factor 

If  you  find  that  you  use  him  only  twenty-five  per  cent  of  the  entire 
time,  you  might  say  that  his  “usefulness  factor”  is  twenty-five  per  cent. 
Now,  in  electrical  terms,  we  call  this  “load  factor,”  which  means  the 
amount  of  use  to  which  a piece  of  apparatus  is  put  in  proportion  to  the 
use  derived  if  it  rah  all  the  time. 

When  you  contract  for  electric  light  or  power,  the  conditions  are 
very  similar.  In  the  early  days  of  electric  service  the  “flat-rate”  of 
charge  was  prevalent  and  is  still  used  to  some  extent.  Under  this 
system  the  customer  would  pay  definite  and  constant  price  per  month 
or  per  year  for  each  electric  light  of  a certain  size,  or  for  each  horse- 
power of  motor  equipment,  whether  he  used  it  all  of  the  time  or  not. 
This  is  the  same  as  hiring  a man  by  the  month  or  the  year.  Under 
this  system,  some  consumers  would  sleep  in  a lighted  room  and  keep 
the  lights  burning  throughout  the  day  to  “get  their  money’s  worth”; 
others  who  used  the  lights  only  when  they  were  needed  would  be 
required  to  pay  for  the  waste  of  the  “electricity  hog,”  as  the  price 
would  be  the  same  to  all  and  must  be  large  enough  to  pay  a profit  on 
the  amount  of  use  of  the  average  customer. 


12 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


Fixed  Charges  and  Operating  Expenses 

This  system  has  long  since  given  way,  for  most  classes  of  electric 
customers,  to  a more  scientific  basis  of  rates.  When  an  electricity 
company  runs  service  wires  into  your  house,  it  contracts  to  be  ready  on 
an  instant’s  notice  to  supply  you  with  lights  or  power,  no  matter  how 
many  other  people  are  demanding  service  at  the  same  instant.  The 
company  hires  out  to  you  for  a year,  or  indefinitely.  To  be  able  to  do 
so,  it  is  compelled  to  invest  not  only  the  cost  of  poles,  transformers  and 
service  wires,  but  also  a sufficient  portion  of  the  cost  of  its  generating 
station  and  the  equipment  to  serve  you  must  be  charged  up  to  your 
service.  Upon  this  investment,  interest  and  “depreciation”  must  be 
borne  by  the  electricity  company  whether  you  use  your  equipment  or 
not,  just  as  the  farm  laborer  in  the  last  method  of  hiring  out,  etc., 
must  have  his  meals,  lodging,  clothes,  and  other  unavoidable  expenses 
if  he  is  to  remain  with  you  and  can  be  ready  to  work  at  any  moment 
you  may  need  him. 

The  farmer  very  often  neglects  this  element  of  cost  as  unimportant. 
This  cannot  be  done  properly.  You  would  be  compelled  to  suffer  these 
expenses  if  you  had  purchased  your  own  gasoline  engine  and  generator 
for  running  your  lights  and  motors.  If  you  borrow  money  to  buy  an 
engine  and  electric  generator,  you  realize  that  you  must  pay  interest 
upon  the  cost.  If  you  do  not  need  to  borrow  to  buy  the  equipment  this 
amount  of  interest  is  nevertheless  properly  chargeable  to  the  cost  of 
your  electric  energy  since  if  you  had  not  invested  in  the  equipment  you 
might  have  lent  the  money  and  had  it  earning  interest  elsewhere.  Such 
equipment  is  also  short  lived  not  only  because  it  wears  out  but  also 
because  it  becomes  “out-of-date”;  after  you  have  used  your  machinery 
for  a few  years  something  more  modern  is  offered  for  sale,  which  is 
more  economical  or  convenient  in  operation  and  you  can  afford  to 
abandon  your  old  equipment  in  favor  of  the  new.  Past  experience  indi- 
cates that  such  equipment  seldom  is  used  more  than  ten  or  twelve  years. 
If  a useful  life  of  twelve  years  be  assumed  then  about  eight  per  cent, 
must  be  charged  each  year  (100  divided  by  twelve  equals  about  eight) 
to  the  cost  of  your  power  to  cover  this  annual  loss  in  the  value  of  your 
plant  and  with  seven  per  cent,  added  for  interest  you  have  obtained 
“fixed  charges”  of  fifteen  per  cent,  of  the  original  investment.  These 
expenses  are  called  “fixed  charges”  because  they  are  the  same  whether 
you  use  your  plant  or  not.  The  cost  of  gasoline,  oil,  and  repairs  are 
“operating  expenses.” 

Now,  again,  this  situation  is  closely  analogous  to  hiring  a farm  hand. 
If  you  must  depend  upon  having  his  services  at  any  moment  then  you 
must  pay  him  for  at  least  meals,  lodging  and  clothes  all  the  time. 
These  are  the  fixed  charges,  and  the  wages  by  the  day  or  hour  for  the 
time  worked  are  the  “service  charges”  or  “operating  expenses.” 

Sliding  Scale 

Now,  we  will  say  that  this  farm  hand  is  working  on  a one-year 
contract  and  is  paid  $25  per  month  plus  board  and  lodging,  or  the 
equivalent  of  $40  per  month,  or  $480  per  year.  This  might  be  called  a 
“flat  rate”  of  pay.  This  $480  would  amount  to  $1.60  per  day,  assuming 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


13 


300  working  days  per  year.  Now  there  are  several  equally  legitimate 
ways  in  which  this  laborer’s  services  could  be  purchased.  Suppose,  for 
example,  that  he  agrees  to  work  for  you  by  the  day  during  one  year 
whenever  you  need  him,  but  will  pay  for  his  own  room  and  board 
elsewhere.  You  agree  to  pay  him  $4.00  per  day  for  the  first  thirty 
days’  work  which  he  does  for  you  during  that  year,  $3.00  per  day  for 
the  next  thirty  days’  work,  $2.00  per  day  for  the  next  thirty  days,  and 
$1.00  per  day  for  all  the  remaining  time;  and  you  further  agree  that  in 
no  case  will  you  pay  him  less  than  the  amount  of  his  board  and  lodging 
at  $15  per  month,  equal  to  $180  per  year,  whether  you  use  him  that 
much  or  not.  This  might  be  called  a “sliding  rate”  or  “sliding  scale” 
of  pay.  If  he  works  the  entire  300  working  days  of  the  year,  his  pay 
would  be  as  follows: 


30  days  at  $4  per  day $120.00 

30  days  at  $3  per  day 90.00 

30  days  at  $2  per  day 60.00 

210  days  at  $1  per  day 210.00 

300  days,  total ..$480.00 


Thus,  if  he  loses  no  time  during  the  year,  he  will  earn  the  same 
amount  as  under  the  other  or  “flat  rate”  form  of  contract.  There  are 
features,  however,  in  this  “sliding  rate”  form  of  contract  which  make  it 
mutually  advantageous  to  both  employer  and  employe.  If  the  man  is 
hired  under  the  “flat  rate”  contract,  there  will  presumably  be  days  and 
seasons  when  he  will  have  little  or  perhaps  nothing  to  do.  Under 
the  “sliding  scale”  form  of  contract  the  employer  would  be  glad  td 
release  him  during  these  periods  and  thereby  save  one  dollar  per  day; 
and  the  employe  ordinarily  would  be  glad  of  this  release  as  he  pre- 
sumably could  secure  employment  during  these  periods  at  two  dollars 
per  day,  or  other  “going  wage”  greater  than  one  dollar.  Thus  they 
both  might  profit. 

Again,  this  situation  is  closely  analogous  to  the  purchase  of  electric 
service.  In  Portland,  for  example,  the  small  residence  consumer 
usually  pays  according  to  a “sliding  scale”  of  nine  cents  per  kwh.  for 
the  first  ten  kwh’s,  seven  cents  for  the  next  ten  kwh’s,  and  four  cents 
for  all  above  these  twenty  kwh’s,  the  plan  being  comparable  with  the 
second  plan  of  hiring  a farm  laborer.  If  the  consumer  paid  for  his 
electric  service  on  a “flat  rate”  for  each  electric  light  in  use,  which  is 
comparable  with  hiring  the  laborer  by  the  month  or  year,  he  probably 
would  use  lights  all  the  time  whether  needed  or  not.  Experience 
teaches  that  this  is  the  case.  This  waste  of  service  must  all  be  paid 
for  by  the  consumers,  and  results  in  an  economic  loss  to  the  entire 
consuming  public. 

Under  the  method  of  charging  for  the  amount  of  energy  consumed, 
the  economical  consumer  has  a chance  to  save  just  as  the  employer  of 
labor  could  save.  This  purpose  would  be  accomplished,  of  course, 
without  the  sliding  scale,  by  charging,  say,  six  cents  per  kwh.  for  all 
energy  consumed,  whether  much  or  little.  This,  however,  would  be 
unfair.  An  electric  company  cannot  install  your  meter,  read  it  once 
per  month,  mail  you  a monthly  bill,  make  the  collection,  keep  a record 
of  your  account,  and  keep  its  generating  machine  ready  to  serve  you, 


14 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


any  cheaper  if  you  use  one  kwh.  per  month  than  they  can  if  you  use 
several  hundred  kwh’s  per  month.  A drayman  might  haul  one  trunk 
from  the  depot  to  your  residence  for  fifty  cents;  if  he  hauled  two 
trunks  for  you  he  should  not  charge  you  as  much  for  the  second  one, 
say  only  thirty-five  cents;  if  he  hauled  three  trunks,  all  on  one  trip,  he 
should  not  charge  over  twenty-five  cents  perhaps  for  the  third  one.  He 
only  makes  one  trip  in  any  event  and  hauling  more  trunks  merely 
consumes  more  time  in  handling  them  at  each  end  but  no  more  time 
en  route. 

This  is  also  the  case  with  the  electric  service  company  and  justifies 
the  “sliding  scale.”  It  must  collect  also  a minimum  rate  (in  Portland, 
$1.00)  no  matter  how  little  energy  you  use,  just  as  the  drayman  would 
need  to  charge  you  for  the  time  of  a trip  whether  he  brought  you  a 
spool  of  thread  or  a trunk. 

These  principles  will  be  further  justified  when  you  see  the  cost  of 
generating  your  own  electricity. 


COST  OF  GENERATING  YOUR  OWN  ELECTRICITY 
One  Kilowatt  Unit 

Assume,  for  example,  that  you  have  your  own  generating  plant  con- 
sisting of  a one  kilowatt  gasoline  engine  generating  unit  with  storage 
battery  sufficient  for  twenty-four  twenty-watt  lamps  for  five  hours  or 
a smaller  number  for  a correspondingly  greater  time.  This  would 
cost  you  complete  about  $600.  Interest  and  depreciation,  or  the 
so-called  “fixed  charges,”  on  this  equipment  would  be  at  least  fifteen 
per  cent.,  or  $90  per  year,  which  is  $7.50  per  month,  or  twenty-five 
cents  per  day.  This  small  engine  will  use  about  oner-fifth  gallon  of 
gasoline  per  kwh.  running  at  full  load,  and  about  two-fifths  running  at 
one-third  load,  as  it  might  some  of  the  time;  or  with  gasoline  at  fifteen 
cents  per  gallon  the  cost  would  vary  from  three  cents  to  six  cents  per 
kwh.  If  only  a residence  were  lighted  and  the  service  economically 
used,  the  consumption  might  not  exceed  one  kwh.  per  day,  which  would 
be  a “load  factor”  of  about  one  divided  by  twenty-four,  or  about  four 
per  cent.,  in  which  case  the  cost  of  service  would  be: 


Fixed  charges  25  cents 

Gasoline,  etc.,  about 6 cents 

Total 31  cents 

Per  kilowatt-hour  31  cents 


A large  house  well  lighted  and  equipped  with  such  utensils  as  ven- 
tilating fans,  vacuum  cleaner,  electric  iron,  toaster,  etc.,  might  use 
perhaps  two  and  five-tenths  kwh.  per  day,  or  a load  factor  of  about 
two  and  five-tenths  divided  by  twenty-four,  or  ten  per  cent.  The  cost  of 
service  per  day  would  then  be: 


Fixed  charges  (interest  and  depreciation) 25  cents 

Gasoline  and  oil,  2.5  kwh.  at  4c  per  kwh 10  cents 

Total  per  day 35  cents 

Per  kilowatt-hour  14  cents 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


15 


There  are  many  operations  which  can  be  done  by  a one-kilowatt 
motor  and  by  so  arranging  the  plan  of  work  as  to  do  no  two  of  them  at 
once,  the  generating  equipment  might  be  kept  busy  for  a much  greater 
portion  of  the  day,  thus  resulting  in  a higher  load  factor.  Thus  for 
twelve  kwh.  daily  consumption  (or  a fifty  per  cent,  load  factor)  the 
cost  of  energy  would  be: 


Fixed  charges 25  cents 

Gasoline  and  oil  at  3%c  per  kwh 42  cents 

Total 67  cents 


Or  about  5.6  cents  per  kwh. 

If  this  one-kw.  unit  were  to  operate  continuously  twenty-four  hours 
per  day  at  full  capacity,  thus  generating  twenty-four  kwh.,  the  cost 
of  generating  would  be: 


Fixed  charges 25  cents 

Gasoline  and  oil  at  3c  per  kwh 72  cents 

Total 97  cents 


Cost  per  kwh.  about  4 cents. 


Hours  per  Day  of  Full  Use 


The  upper  curve  in  Figure  3 shows  in  a striking  manner  this 
immense  variation  in  cost.  At  the  left,  are  figures  representing  cost  per 
kilowatt-hour  and  at  the  bottom  “load  factor,”  or  average  proportion 
of  the  day  that  the  generating  equipment  is  in  full  service,  as  shown  by 
the  actual  number  of  hours  at  the  top.  To  use  this  diagram,  first  esti- 
mate the  hours  per  day  which  you  would  expect  to  use  the  equipment 
at  full  capacity  (or  the  “load  factor”)  and  then  find  this  figure  along 


16 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


the  upper  or  lower  scale,  then  follow  along  vertically  above  or  below 
this  figure  until  you  come  to  the  curve,  then  turn  to  the  left  and  follow 
along  horizontally  to  the  scale  at  the  left  where  the  cost  per  kilowatt- 
hour  is  given. 

Five-Kilowatt  Unit 

Now  a larger  generating  unit'  costs  less  per  kilowatt  of  capacity. 
Thus  the  cost  of  a five-kw.  gasoline  generating  station  with  storage 
batteries  would  be  about  $1,400,  or  $280  per  kw.,  and  of  a ten  kw. 
station  about  $1,750,  or  $175  per  kw.,  all  of  which  estimates  are 
necessarily  only  rough  approximations  due  to  differences  in  types  of 
equipment  and  the  continual  fluctuations  in  market  prices.  All  these 
estimates  are  based  on  the  same  sizes  of  storage  battery,  it  being 
assumed  that  only  the  lights  or  small  utensils  be  operated  without 
starting  the  engine. 


Size  in  Kilowatts 

FIG.  4 — APPROXIMATE  COST  OF  SMALL  GASOLINE  ENGINE 
GENERATING  PLANTS 


Figure  4 shows  graphically  the  approximate  cost  per  kilowatt  of 
these  small  gasoline  generating  stations  in  sizes  up  to  ten  kilowatts. 
It  is  evident  here  how  rapidly  the  cost  per  kilowatt  decreases  as  the 
size  of  the  station  increases. 

The  fixed  charges  for  the  larger  engines  will,  therefore,  be  less  per 
kwh.,  provided  they  are  kept  as  busy  in  proportion  to  their  capacities. 
Thus  in  Figure  3 are  shown  curves  of  the  cost  of  electrical  energy 
from  a one-kilowatt,  five-kilowatt  and  a ten-kilowatt  gasoline  engine 
generating  set  with  small  storage  battery  good  for  twenty-four  twenty- 
watt  lamps  for  five  hours,  for  lighting  and  small  uses  when  the 
generator  is  not  running. 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


17 


The  analysis  of  cost  of  energy  for  the  five-kw.  and  ten-kw.  generating 
units  is  as  follows: 

For  a five-kw.  unit  the  fixed  charges  would  be#fifteen  per  cent,  of 
1,400  divided  by  365,  or  57.5  cents  per  day.  The  analysis  would  then 
be: 

For  five-kw.  output  per  day  (or  one  hour’s  full  use  per  day): 


Fixed  cha'rges  57.5  cents 

Gasoline,  etc.,  at  (say)  5%c 27.5  cents 

85.0  cents 

Cost  per  kwh 17.0  cents 

For  twelve-kwh.  output  per  day: 

Fixed  charges  57.5  cents 

Gasoline,  etc.,  at  (say)  5c 60.0  cents 

117.5  cents 

Cost  per  kwh 9.8  cents 

For  sixty-kwh.  output  per  day: 

Fixed  charges  57.5  cents 

Gasoline,  etc.,  at  (say)  4c ....240.0  cents 

297.5  cents 

Cost  per  kwh 4.95  cents 

For  120-kwh.  output  per  day: 

Fixed  charges  57.5  cents 

Gasoline,  etc.,  at  3c  360.0  cents 

417.5  cents 

Cost  per  kwh 3.5  cents 

Ten-Kilowatt  Unit 


For  a ten-kw.  unit  the  fixed  charges  would  be  fifteen  per  cent,  of 
$1,750  divided  by  365,  or  seventy-two  cents  per  day. 

The  cost  of  generation  would  be: 


Output 

Fixed  Charges 

Gasoline  and 

Other  Expenses 

Total 

per  kwh. 
Cost 

10  kwh.  per  day 

72  cents 

at  5%c  per  kwh.,  .55 

127c 

12.7c 

24  kwh.  per  day 

72  cents 

.—.at  5 c per  kwh.,  1.20 

192c 

8.0c 

120  kwh.  per  day 

72  cents 

.....at  4 c per  kwh.,  4.80 

552c  , 

4.6c 

240  kwh.  per  day 

72  cents 

.—at  3 c per  kwh.,  7.20 

792c 

3.3c 

Effect  of  Size  of  Generating  Unit 

From  Figure  3 you  might  be  led  to  believe  that  it  would  pay  to 
buy  a plant  larger  than  you  actually  need  in  order  to  reduce  the  cost  of 
energy  per  kilowatt-hour.  This  would  be  a wrong  conclusion.  Suppose 
that  you  expect  to  use  about  twenty-four  kwh.  per  day.  If  you  could 
use  this  energy  at  a uniform  rate  throughout  twenty-four  hours  each 
day,  you  could  purchase  the  one-kilowatt  generating  unit,  and  it  would 
operate  with  a load  factor  of  100  per  cent.  This  is  very  unlikely, 
however,  as  almost  no  service  is  continuous  for  twenty-four  hours  per 
day.  You  would  more  than  likely  purchase  the  five-kilowatt  unit 
which  would  need  to  run  only  four  and  eight-tenths  hours  per  day  if 


18 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


fully  loaded  but  longer  if  not;  the  load  factor  would  be  twenty-four 
divided  by  (five  times  twenty-four),  or  twenty  per  cent.  If  you  werd 
to  generate  the  same  amount  of  energy  with  the  ten-kilowatt  unit  it 
would  require  only  half  as  long  or  else  it  would  operate  only  at  one-half 
capacity;  the  load  factor  would  be  only  ten  per  cent.  Now,  if  you  refer 
to  the  foregoing  computations  or  to  Figure  3 for  the  three  prices  of 
energy  per  kwh.,  you  will  find  the  cost  of  twenty-four  kwh.  per  day 
to  be: 

Per  kwh.  Total 

From  a 1-kilowatt  generating  unit  (100  per  cent,  load  factor). ...4  cents  $0.96 

From  a 5-kilowatt  generating  unit  (20  per  cent,  load  factor) 7.2  cents  1.73 

From  a 10-kilowatt  generating  unit  (10  per  cent,  load  factor). ...8  cents  1.92 


FIG.  5 — ILLUSTRATES  COST  WITH  REFERENCE  TO  ACTUAL  OUPUT  IN 
KWH.  PER  DAY  INSTEAD  OF  LOAD  FACTOR  HORIZONTALLY 

To  illustrate  this  point  better  the  three  curves  of  Figure  3 have  all 
been  redrawn  in  Figure  5 with  actual  output  in  kwh.  per  day  instead  of 
load  factor  horizontally.  Above  twenty-four  kwh.  you  will  find  the 
costs  above  quoted. 

Now,  this  increase  in  cost  for  the  larger  units  results  from  the 
fact  of  the  higher  fixed  charges  without  any  increase  in  output;  whereas 
the  curves  shown  in  Figure  3 apply  to  the  case  where  the  output  in 
each  case  is  as  much  greater  as  the  size  of  the  unit.  The  conclusion  is 
at  once  apparent  that  the  cost  of  a given  amount  of  electrical  energy 
per  kwh.  will  generally  be  least  when  produced  by  the  smallest  engine 
and  generator  which  is  capable  of  yielding  the  required  output. 

Peak  Load 

Your  size  of  generating  station,  however,  cannot  always  be  chosen 
simply  with  reference  to  the  most  economical  size  for  producing  a 
certain  number  of  kwh.  per  day;  in  addition  to  this  requirement  it  must 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


19 


not  be  smaller  than  the  largest  load  which  it  will  be  required  to  carry 
at  any  one  time,  which  is  called  the  “peak  load.”  Thus  you  may  have 
a twelve-horsepower  motor  for  threshing,  and  it  may  be  used  only  a 
few  days  each  year,  yet  your  generating  unit  must  be  large  enough  to 
care  for  this  peak  load  no  matter  how  little  it  is  used  during  the 
remainder  of  the  year.  Your  load  factor  is  thus  decreased  because  of 
this  one  motor,  and  your  average  cost  of  energy  greatly  increased.  In 
the  case  discussed  above  you  would  need  the  ten-kw.  plant  and  your 
load  factor  would  be  only  about  ten  per  cent.,  making  your  cost  of 
energy  about  eight  cents  per  kwh. 


Surplus  Power 

If,  however,  you  could  cooperate  with  your  nearby  neighbors  by 
running  wires  to  their  farms  and  by  moving  the  motor  around  to  each 
farm  to  do  their  threshing  one  at  a time,  you  would  not  need  to 
increase  the  size  of  your  generating  plant  above  ten  kw.,  and  yet  you 
would  increase  the  number  of  kwh.  used  during  the  year  and  thereby 
increase  your  load  factor  and  decrease  the  average  cost  of  energy  per 
kwh.  In  fact,  the  saving  to  you  would  be  so  great  that  you  could 
afford  to  offer  your  neighbors  a very  cheap  price  for  their  service,  pro- 
vided they  would  agree  to  use  it  only  when  you  would  not  otherwise  be 
using  the  full  capacity  of  your  generator;  in  other  words,  when  you 
had  a “surplus.” 

The  case  is  again  analogous  to  that  of  the  farm  hand  who  is  hired 
by  the  year  and  is  prevented  from  working  for  an  occasional  week  of 
rainy  weather.  You  find  that  your  neighbor  has  some  indoor  work,  such 
as  corn-husking,  for  which  he  needs  help.  You  can  offer  him  the 
assistance  of  your  man  at  a very  low  price  for  these  periods,  as 
anything  which  he  earns  for  you  then  will  be  clear  profit. 

The  dream  of  the  electrical  household,  where  all  the  heat  is  fur- 
nished and  a good  many  of  the  chores  are  done  by  the  simple  turning 
of  a button,  has  been  partly  realized  in  Sweden.  In  that  country  the 
waterfalls  are  being  harnessed  on  a large  scale,  and  since  distances 
are  not  so  great  as  in  America,  power  is  being  delivered  in  the  homes 
of  the  people  in  all  the  larger  cities  and  in  some  of  the  country  dis- 
tricts. A factor  in  the  practical  use  of  power,  wliich  is  running  over 
the  falls  all  the  time  while  factories  are  operating  chiefly  in  daylight, 
is  a plan  for  heating  water  in  insulated  tanks  on  the  tops  of  houses 
when  the  electricity  is  not  otherwise  used  and  can  be  had  at  a cheap 
rate.  When  the  factories  start  up  the  heat  in  the  tanks  is  cut  off 
automatically,  and  a small  amount  of  power  is  employed  to  create 
a circulation  of  warm  water  through  the  building.  The  method  is  so 
simple  and  so  cheap  that  there  is  hope  that  it  will  some  day  be 
universal. 

As  you  can  see  readily,  the  economic  and  engineering  problems 
involved  in  the  selection  of  proper  power  equipment,  if  you  intend  to 
build  a plant,  are  such  as  to  make  it  nearly  always  advisable  and 
economical  to  secure  the  advice  of  a disinterested  specialist.  Specialists 
representing  machinery  manufacturers  often  furnish  such  advice  osten- 


20 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


sibly  “for  nothing,”  but  such  advice  usually,  although  not  always} 
proves  expensive  in  the  end,  as  their  interest  is  always  in  selling  much 
equipment  at  the  largest  profit  possible. 

Purchase  of  Electrical  Energy  from  a Central  Steam  Station 

We  will  extend  our  analogy  to  the  case  of  the  large  central  steam 
generating  stations,  showing  the  similarity  of  the  problems  and  the 
reason  for  the  existing  basis  of  rates  with  the  apparent  immense  differ- 
ence between  the  prices  paid  by  different  classes  of  consumers,  which 
leads  often  to  the  charge  of  discrimination.  The  steam  stations  are 
similar  to  the  gasoline  stations  in  that  the  total  cost  of  production  is  a 
combination  of  the  cost  of  fuel,  labor,  etc.,  known  as  “operating 
charges,”  and  “fixed  charges.”  Specific  items  of  cost  will,  of  course, 
differ  but  the  principles  involved  are  strictly  comparable. 

*4.m.  prr 


szo.voo  /2  2 4 6 0/0/224  6 3 /O  /2 


L oc7C / factor  ~ O.  S~S7 


/VOT£ — r/&o/r£s  fo/t  n//.L4fi£rT£:  m j.L£y  /9// 

/rj  ter  urban  / 7 . O 7° 

S/-re&f  7rac//on  23.7  % 

28.  S % 

/’orrer  30  . B 'A 

FIG.  6 — LOAD  CURVE  OF  SEATTLE  ELECTRIC  CO.,  JAN.  12,  1911 

Typical  Daily  Load  Curve 

Figure  6 is  the  “load  curve”  of  the  Seattle  Electric  Company  of 
January  12,  1911,  serving  a general  traction,  lighting,  and  power 
system.  The  hours  of  the  day  from  midnight  to  midnight  are  shown 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


21 


along  the  bottom  of  the  diagram;  the  vertical  height  of  the  curve  at  any 
hour,  as  given  by  the  figures  at  the  left,  indicates  the  total  amount  of 
power  being  used  by  the  customers  of  this  power  system  at  that 
moment. 

As  would  be  expected,  the  demand  is  very  small  from  3 a.  m.  to 
5 a.  m.,  but  thereafter  the  “owl-car”  service  of  the  street  railway  lines 
gives  place  to  a more  frequent  service  as  early  laborers  begin  going  to 
their  work,  and  houses  are  lighted  up  for  the  preparation  of  breakfast 
for  later  risers;  a small  “peak”  in  the  load  curve  extends  from  7 a.  m. 
to  9 a.  m.,  during  the  heaviest  morning  street  car  traffic;  and  then  the 
demand  remains  nearly  constant  until  about  4 p.  m.,  when  rush  hours 
again  commence  on  the  street  cars,  which,  together  with  the  lighting  of 
homes  for  the  evening  meal-time,  cause  the  high  peak  in  the  load  curve 
at  about  6 p.  m.  Now,  this  typical  “load  curve”  is  something  which 
every  user  of  electrical  energy  should  understand,  for  this  curve,  cor- 
rectly interpreted,  is  of  fundamental  importance  to  the  science  of  elec- 
trical rate-making,  and  hence,  also  to  the  scientific  purchasing  and 
using  of  electrical  energy. 

Effect  of  Low  Load  Factor  on  Rates 

You  were  shown  in  a previous  paragraph,  illustrated  by  Figures  3 
and  5,  how  enormously  the  cost  of  generating  electrical  energy  is 
increased  per  kwh.  when  it  is  used  for  only  a short  time  per  day  (or  as 
we  say,  “when  the  Toad  factor’  is  small”).  House  lighting  is  a load  of 
short  daily  duration  and  yet  forms  a large  proportion  of  the  total  load 
of  any  city  power  system.  In  fact,  it  largely  causes  the  high  peak 
which  in  turn  determines  the  size  of  the  generating  station.  If,  there- 
fore, a central  station  increases  its  lighting  customers,  it  must  increase 
its  station  capacity  and  distribution  lines,  and  the  lighting  service  is 
properly  chargeable  with  the  fixed  charges  of  interest  and  depreciation 
against  this  extra  size  of  power  station  and  extra  lines  for  only  a short 
daily  use.  A simple  residence  lighting  load  has  a load  factor  which, 
although  it  varies  much,  will  generally  be  only  about  twenty  per  cent. 
Referring  again  to  Figure  3 you  will  see  that  the  cost  of  service  is  neces- 
sarily high  for  this  low  load  factor,  being  about  fifty  per  cent,  greater 
than  for  a load  factor  of  fifty  per  cent. 

Effect  of  Small  Consumption  on  Cost  of  Service 

Again,  residence  lighting  consumers  are  the  smallest  of  all  con- 
sumers; their  accounts  must  be  kept,  meters  must  be  read,  bills  com- 
puted, written  out  and  mailed,  and  accounts  collected,  all  of  which 
operations  require  nearly,  if  not  quite,  as  much  time  as  for  large 
consumers.  This  fact  furnishes  further  justification  for  the  principle 
of  a minimum  monthly  rate  for  service,  and  for  the  principle  of 
charging  a higher  rate  to  small  consumers  than  to  large  ones. 

Effect  of  Cost  of  Distribution  on  Rates 

A further  element  of  great  importance  is  the  cost  of  distribution. 
The  investment  in  distribution  lines  of  the  central  station  company  in 
the  average  city  of,  say,  100,000  people  is  about  $100  to  $150  per 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


kw.  of  peak  generating  capacity.  This  is  a very  considerable  proportion 
of  their  total  investment  (in  fact,  it  is  about  twice  the  cost  of  an  entire 
steam  generating  plant)  and  in  residence  districts  is  much  greater  per 
customer  and  per  kilowatt-hour  sold  than  elsewhere,  because  of  the 
smaller  number  of  customers  per  mile  of  line.  In  addition  to  the  fixed 
charges  upon  this  large  investment,  which  is  the  shortest  lived  portion 
of  a company’s  property,  the  distribution  losses  of  each  class  of  service 
must  be  charged  against  the  respective  classes  of  consumers.  Now, 
these  losses  are  large,  especially  in  the  case  of  residential  service. 

The  following  diagram,  Figure  7,  illustrates  the  large  losses  which 
unavoidably  accompany  the  distribution  of  electric  energy.  It  is  taken 
from  the  Transactions  of  the  American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers,' 
Vol.  XXXI,  1912,  page  4 82,  and  shows  the  average  annual  efficiency  of 
the  Seattle  Municipal  Electric  Station  for  the  year  1911.  You  will 
note  that  the  final  amount  of  electrical  energy  which  is  paid  for  by  the 
consumers  is  only  about  sixty-five  per  cent,  of  the  amount  of  electrical 
energy  generated  at  the  hydro-electric  station,  and  only  about  forty 
per  cent  of  the  energy  represented  by  the  falling  water  used  by  the 
water  wheels.  The  average  consumer,  for  this  reason,  must  pay 
fixed  charges  upon  a plant  much  larger  than  the  size  of  his  actual 
demand,  and  the  ratio  is  greater  for  residence  lighting  than  elsewhere. 

Off  Peak  Service 


FIG.  7 — ILLUSTRATES  LARGE  LOSSES  WHICH  UNAVOIDABLY  ACCOM- 
PANY THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ELECTRIC  ENERGY 


Some  classes  of  consumers,  as  for  example  most  manufacturing 
motor  loads,  do  not  coincide  with  the  evening  peak  and,  therefore,  can 
be  served  without  increasing  the  size  of  power  station  otherwise  neces- 
sary. The  real  cost  of  service  to  such  consumers  is  the  cost  of  fuel, 
and  fixed  charges  on  the  proportion  of  service  wires  and  meter  charge- 
able to  their  individual  service.  Central  stations  often  offer  induce- 
ments of  very  low  rates  to  manufacturers  or  other  consumers  who  will 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


23 


change  their  hours  of  use  so  as  to  be  idle  during  the  peak  load;  this 
class  of  service  is  known  as  “off-peak”  service.  In  some  other  cases 
the  manufacturer  has  two  meters  and  is  charged  a higher  rate  for  the 
energy  he  uses  during  the  peak  load. 


HYDRO-ELECTRIC  SERVICE 

Cost  of  Generation 

In  previous  pages  you  have  been  shown  the  economic  principles 
involved  in  the  cost  of  generation  of  electrical  energy  from  fuel  engines, 
and  the  economic  principles  of  rate  making  for  such  service.  It  will  be 
remembered  that  the  cost  of  service  involves  the  items  of  “fixed  charges,” 
“maintenance  and  operation”  and  “fuel”  (the  last  two  previously 
grouped  under  “operating  expenses.”) 

In  the  case  of  hydro-electric  generation  some  fundamental  differ-* 
ences  should  be  recognized: 

1.  The  lack  of  need  of  a fuel  to  that  extent  reduces  the  cost  of  generation. 

2.  The  capital  cost  per  kw.  capacity,  and  for  this  reason  the  fixed  charges 
vary  more  than  for  fuel  plants  because  the  natural  conditions  for  the  construc- 
tion of  dams  and  other  structures  are  seldom  alike  at  two  different  power  sites, 
in  general,  however,  it  may  be  said  that  hydro-electric  generating  stations  cost 
considerably  more  to  build  than  fuel  stations  of  equal  size,  resulting  in  higher 
fixed  charges. 

3.  Steam  stations  are  usually  located  near  the  center  of  a city  or  near  the 
center  of  distribution,  whereas  hydro-electric  stations  are  usually  at  a considerable 
distance  from  a market,  necessitating  the  large  expense  and  losses  of  trans- 
mission and  transformation  to  high  voltage  for  this  purpose. 

Whether  or  not  the  advantage  of  no  fuel-cost  outweighs  the  disad- 
vantage of  extra  fixed  charges  is  a matter  which  can  be  determined 
only  for  each  individual  case.  Near  the  coVl  districts  of  the  East  a 
hydro-electric  power  site  must  be  a good  one  in  order  to  compete  with 
the  cost  of  steam  generation  for  general  distribution  purposes. 

Low  Load  Factor  and  Off-Peak  Service 

The  relative  importance  of  fixed  charges  in  the  hydro-electric  sta- 
tion has  a very  great  significance  in  the  matter  of  relative  rates  for 
different  classes  of  service.  In  discussing  the  cost  of  generation  by 
gasoline  engine  power  it  was  shown  (see  Figure  3)  that,  although  the 
cost  of  fuel  per  kwh.  increases  somewhat  for  low  load  factors,  yet  the 
chief  reason  for  the  very  high  relative  cost  is  the  fact  that  the  fixed 
charges  must  be  charged  against  the  production  of  a smaller  amount  of 
energy.  Now  in  hydro-electric  development  this  difference  is  still 
further  magnified  since  the  fixed  charges  are  relatively  more 
important.  This  fact  has  an  important  bearing  upon  the  relative 
advantages  of  hydro-electric  power  for  various  classes  of  consumers, 
and  the  relative  rates  that  can  be  offered.  Thus,  the  disparity  between 
the  cost  of  service  per  kwh.  for  residence  lighting  and  for  those  manufac- 
turing plants  where  the  power  is  used  almost  twenty-four  hours  per  day, 
has  a tendency  to  be  greater  for  hydro-electric  than  for  steam-electric 
service.  Likewise,  off-peak  service  could  not  be  offered  from  a steam 
plant  at  a price  below  the  cost  of  fuel,  labor,  oil,  and  some  extra 


24 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


expenses;  whereas,  in  a hydro-electric  station  off-peak  loads  might  in 
some  cases  be  served  for  almost  nothing  except  for  the  cost  of  lubri- 
cating oil  and  the  charges  on  service  connections.  Much,  however, 
depends  upon  storage  facilities  at  the  particular  power  site;  thus,  if  no 
storage  exists  and  water  must  flow  over  the  dam  and  go  to  waste 
during  hours  of  small  load,  then  off-peak  service  could  be  supplied  for 
a very  low  rate,  whereas  this  rate  could  not  be  so  low  if  the  pond 
above  the  dam  is  large  enough  to  permit  saving  the  water  for  the  peak 
load  hours,  when  better  prices  could  be  obtained. 

POWER  TARIFFS 

Several  methods  of  charging  for  electric  service  are  now  in  vogue, 
nearly  all  of  them,  however,  resulting  in  a variation  in  price  similar 
to  that  shown  in  the  curves  of  Figure  3,  the  economic  justification  for 
which  should  now  be  clear. 

Sliding  Scale 

The  “Residence  Lighting  Schedule”  of  the  Portland  Railway,  Light 
& Power  Company,  the  largest  electric  service  company  in  Oregon,  is 
as  follows: 


First  six  per  cent,  of  the  monthly  maximum  consumption  at  nine  cents  per 
kwh.  (“Monthly  maximum  consumption”  means  one-third  of  the  maximum 
amount  of  energy  which  the  installed  lights  could  use  in  one  month  if  operated 
twenty-four  hours  per  day  for  the  entire  730  hours  of  the  average  length  of 
month,  the  installed  lights  in  no  case  to  be  taken  as  less  than  700  watts.) 

Next  six  per  cent,  of  monthly  maximum  consumption  at  seven  cents  per  kwh. 

All  in  excess  of  the  above  twelve  per  cent,  of  the  monthly  maximum  con- 
sumption at  four  cents  per  kwh. 

Minimum  charge,  $1.00  per  month. 

A six-room  house  economically  equipped  would  have  about  the 
following  lights: 


Living  room,  two  40  watt  Tungsten  lamps 80  watts 

Dining  room,*  two  40  watt  Tungsten  lamps 80  watts 

Kitchen,  one  40  watt  Tungsten  lamp 40  watts 

Three  bedrooms,  one  each  40  watt  Tungsten  lamps - .120  watts 

Bathroom,  porch,  basement  and  hall,  each  one  25  watt  Tungsten  lamp.... 100  watts 

Total  installed  capacity , 420  watts 

As  this  equipment  is  less  than  the  minimum  residence  installation, 
namely  700  watts,  upon  which  bills  are  rendered,  you  must  use  700 
watts  as  the  installed  capacity.  One-third  of  this  capacity  used  con- 
tinuously 730  hours  per  month  would  consume  700  times  730  divided 
by  three  times  1,000  equals  170  kwh. 

Now  six  per  cent  of  this,  or  ten  kwh.  is  billed  at  nine  cents  per  kwh.; 
the  next  six  per  cent,  or  the  next  ten  kwh.,  is  billed  at  seven  cents  per 
kwh.;  and  all  above  at  four  cents  per  kwh.  Thus  if  a residence  were  to 
consume  twenty-five  kwh.  per  month  the  bill  would  read: 


10  kwh.  at  9 cents $0.90 

10  kwh.  at  7 cents.. 70 

5 kwh.  at  4 cents  20 


Total  monthly  bill 


$1.80 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


25 


If  this  total  had  amounted  to  less  than  $1.00  the  minimum  bill  of 
$1.00  would  have  been  charged  nevertheless. 

Tariffs  throughout  the  remainder  of  the  state  are  generally  higher 
than  the  above.  This  is  to  be  expected  as  the  “manufacture”  of  elec- 
trical energy,  like  all  manufacturing,  can  be  done  at  a smaller  cost  when 
done  on  a large  scale,  and  moreover  the  cost  of  distribution  becomes 
less  as  the  density  of  population  becomes  greater. 


Fixed  Charge  Plus  an  Energy  Charge 

Instead  of  the  large  variation  of  the  foregoing  lighting  schedule 
from  nine  cents  to  four  cents  per  kwh.  the  same  general  purpose  can 
be  attained  by  means  of  a “service  charge”  or  “fixed  charge”  plus  a 
charge  for  energy,  which  latter  then  varies  through  a narrower  range, 
or  in  some  cases  not  at  all.  This  method  is  simpler  theoretically  as  the 
“fixed  charges”  are  meant  to  cover  the  fixed  charges  on  the  capital 
invested  by  the  power  company,  as  discussed  for  the  case  of  the  gas 
engine,  and  the  “energy  charge”  is  for  the  cost  of  generation. 

This  form  of  contract  is  illustrated  by  the  “Wholesale  Power  Sched- 
ule” of  the  Portland  Railway,  Light  & Power  Company,  as  follows: 

A monthly  service  charge  of  $1.25  per  kw.  of  maximum  demand, 
plus  energy  charges  as  follows: 


First  1,000  kwh.  of  monthly  consumption 2.00  cents  per  kwh. 

Next  2,000  kwh.  of  monthly  consumption 1.50  cents  per  kwh. 

Next  4,000  kwh.  of  monthly  consumption 1.25  cents  per  kwh. 

Next  8,000  kwh.  of  monthly  consumption 1.00  cents  per  kwh. 

Next  16,000  kwh.  of  monthly  consumption 80  cents  per  kwh. 

Next  32,000  kwh.  of  monthly  consumption 70  cents  per  kwh. 

Next  64,000  kwh.  of  monthly  consumption 60  cents  per  kwh. 

Next  127,000  kwh.  of  monthly  consumption... 50  cents  per  kwh. 

Minimum  charge  in  no  case  less  than  $150  per  month. 

To  apply  the  above  rate  suppose  that  a manufacturer  has  a motor 
installation  and  a “maximum  demand”  of  200  h.  p.  or  150  kw.,  and  that 
his  consumption  for  March  as  shown  by  his  meter  is  30,000  kwh.,  which 
corresponds  approximately  to  the  consumption  for  a ten-hour  working 
day  at  an  average  consumption  during  these  ten  hours  of  about  three- 
fourths  of  the  motor  capacity.  The  load  factor  would  then  be  seventy- 
five  per  cent,  for  the  actual  operating  hours  but  only  seventy-five  times 
ten  divided  by  twenty-four  or  31.2  per  cent  for  the  entire  day.  His 
bill  would  be  computed  as  follows: 


Fixed  charges,  150  kw.  at  $1.25 $187.50 

1.000  kwh.  at  2 cents 20.00 

2.000  kwh.  at  1.5  cents 30.00 

4.000  kwh.  at  1.25  cents 50.00 

8.000  kwh.  at  1.00  cents 80.00 

15.000  kwh.  at  .80  cents 120.00 


$487.50 

The  average  price  would  thus  be  $487.50  divided  by  30,000,  or  1.625 
or  1 % cents  per  kwh. 


26 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


If  this  same  manufacturer  should  operate  two  full  shifts  of  ten 
hours  each  per  day  he  would  consume  twice  as  much  energy  or  60,000 
kwh.  per  month,  but  his  maximum  demand  would  be  unchanged.  His 
bill  would  then  be  computed  as  follows: 


Fixed  charges,  150  kw.  at  $1.25..... $187.50 

1.000  kwh.  at  2 cents 20.00 

2.000  kwh.  at  1.5  cents 30.00 

4.000  kwh.  at  1.25  cents 50.00 

8.000  kwh.  at  1.00  cents 80.00 

16.000  kwh.  at  .80  cents. 128.00 

29.000  kwh.  at  .70 203.00 


60,000  $698.50 


The  average  price  would  then  be  $698.50  divided  by  60,000,  or 
1.164  cents  per  kwh.  This  reduction  in  price  again  illustrates  the 
economy  of  getting  all  the  use  possible  out  of  a given  investment  so 
that  the  fixed  charges  will  be  divided  up  among  a greater  number  of 
units  of  production. 


RELIABILITY  AND  READING  OF  A METER 
Regulation  of  the  Public  Service  Commission 

It  is  not  necessary  here  to  describe  the  method  by  which  a meter 
measures  electrical  energy.  Their  necessary  accuracy  is  prescribed  by 
the  duly  constituted  authority  of  the  Public  Service  Commission  of  the 
State  of  Oregon,  which  has  issued  the  following  rules:* 


Rule  2.  Testing  Facilities. 

a.  Each  utility  shall  provide  such  laboratory,  meter-testing  shop,  and  other 
facilities  as  may  be  necessary  to  make  the  tests  required  by  these  rules.  All 
tests  made  by  any  utility  under  these  rules  shall  be  carried  out  in  a manner  and 
at  such  places  as  may  be  approved  by  the  Commission,  and  the  apparatus  and 
equipment  used  for  these  tests  shall  be  at  all  times  available  for  the  inspection 
or  use  of  any  member  or  authorized  representative  of  the  Commission. 

Rule  3.  Records  of  Tests  and  Meters. 

a.  A complete  record  of  all  tests  of  quality,  service,  or  meter  accuracy  as 
made  under  these  rules,  shall  be  kept  by  each  utility  accessible  to  the  public 
during  business  hours  at  the  principal  office  in  the  town  or  city  where  the  service 
is  furnished,  or  at  such  other  place  as  the  Commission  may  designate.  The 
record  so  kept  shall  contain  complete  information  concerning  each  test,  including 
the  date  and  hour  when  the  test  was  made,  the  name  of  the  inspector  conducting: 
the  test,  the  number  of  any  meter  tested  and  its  capacity,  the  point  at  which 
pressure,  voltage  or  other  tests  were  made  when  not  made  at  the  regular  testing 
laboratory  of  the  utility,  the  results  of  the  tests,  and  such  other  data  as  may 
hereinafter  in  these  rules  be  specially  required,  or  as  the  Commission  may  from 
time  to  time  require,  or  as  the  utility  making  the  test  may  deem  desirable. 

^Public  Service  Commission  of  Oregon,  File  No.  U-F-61,  effective  July  1,  1914. 

b.  Whenever  any  service  meter  is  tested,  the  original  test  record  shall  be 
preserved,  indicating  the  information  necessary  for  the  identifying  of  the  meter, 
the  reason  for  making  the  test,  the  reading  of  the  meter  before  being  disturbed, 
and  the  accuracy  of  measurement,  together  with  all  data  taken  at  the  time  of  the 
test,  in  sufficiently  complete  form  to  permit  the  convenient  checking  of  the 
methods  employed  and  the  calculations. 

c.  A record  shall  also  be  kept,  numerically  arranged,  indicating  approximately 
when  each  meter  was  purchased,  its  size,  its  identification,  its  various  places  of 
installation  and  removal,  and  the  dates  and  general  results  of  all  tests. 

Rule  4.  Meter  Testing. 

a.  Every  meter  hereafter  installed  for  measuring  gas,  electric  current,  heat 
or  water  to  any  customer  shall  be  tested  and  if  necessary  repaired  and  adjusted 
by  the  utility  installing  it  before  being  placed  in  use,  or.  in  the  case  of  electricity 
meters,  within  thirty  days  thereafter,  as  provided  by  Rule  21 ; and  every  meter 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


27 


tested  (except  water  meters  installed  underground)  shall  have  firmly  attached 
thereto  a tag  or  label,  or  be  stencilled,  giving  the  date  of  test,  which  tag,  label 
or  stenciled  mark  shall  not  be  defaced  or  removed  until  a subsequent  test  shall 
have  been  made. 

Rule  5.  Meter  Testing  on  Request  of  Customer. 

a.  Bach  utility  shall,  at  any  time  when  requested  by  a customer,  test  the 
accuracy  of  the  meter  in  use  by  him  free  of  charge,  provided  such  meter  has 
not  been  tested  by  the  utility  or  by  the  Commission  within  the  period  of  one  year 
immediately  preceding  the  request. 

b.  Any  customer  may  at  any  time  make  application  to  the  Commission  for  a 
test  of  his  meter  and  shall  deposit  with  the  Commission  a fee  for  said  test,  fixed 
as  hereinafter  in  these  rules  provided.  Such  fee  shall  be  returned  to  the  custo- 
mer by  the  Commission,  and  the  amount  thereof  paid  by  the  utility  to  the 
Commisison,  if  the  meter  is  found  to  be  fast  in  excess  of  the  following  limits, 
viz.  : 

Electricity  meters,  four  per  cent. 

Rule  6.  Adjustments  of  Bills  for  Meter  Error. 

a.  If  on  test  of  any  meter,  for  any  cause,  either  on  removal  from  or  while 
in  service,  it  shall  be  found  fast  beyond  the  limits  specified  in  Rule  5b,  the 
utility  shall  refund  to  the  customer  such  percentage  of  the  amount  of  the  bills 
of  the  customer  for  the  period  of  three  months  just  previous  to  such  test  of  the 
meter  as  the  meter  shall  have  been  shown  to  be  in  error  at  the  time  of  said  test. 
If  the  meter  is  found  not  to  register  or  to  register  less  than  fifty  per  cent,  of 
the  actual  consumption,  an  average  bill  may  be  rendered  to  the  customer  by  the 
utility,  subject  to  the  aproval  of  the  Commission. 

Rule  7.  Meter  Readings  and  Bill  Forms. 

a.  Every  meter  shall  indicate  clearly  the  cubic  feet,  kilowatt  hours,  gallons, 
or  other  units  of  service  for  which  charge  is  made  to  the  customer.  In  cases 
where  the  dial  reading  on  a meter  must  be  multiplied  by  a constant  to  obtain 
the  units  consumed,  the  proper  constant  to  be  applied  shall  be  clearly  and 
plainly  marked  on  the  meter. 

b.  Bills  rendered  customers  by  utilities  shall  show  the  readings  of  the  meters 
at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  period  of  time  for  which  rendered,  the  number 
and  kinds  of  units  of  service  supplied,  and  the  price  per  unit,  and  on  all  bills 
computed  on  demand  or  connected  load  basis,  the  amount  of  connected  load, 
maximum  demand,  or  other  factors  used  in  computing  the  bill,  shall  be  clearly 
stated,  and  all  bills  shall  be  made  out  in  such  a way  that  the  amount  may  be 
readily  re-computed  from  the  information  appearing  plainly  upon  the  face  of  the 
bill. 

c.  On  written  request  by  a customer,  the  utility  shall  cause  the  meter 
reader  at  the  time  the  customer’s  meter  is  read,  to  leave  on  such  meter  or  with 
the  customer  a card  showing  the  date  and  time  such  reading  was  made,  and  the 
reading  of  the  meter,  expressed  in  kilowatt  hours,  or  other  unit  of  service  upon 
which  the  charge  is  made,  or  the  position  of  the  hands  on  the  meter  dials. 

Rule  8.  Deposits  and  Meter  Rentals. 

a.  Any  utility  may  require  from  any  customer  or  prospective  customer  a 
deposit  on  account  of  current  bills  (1)  in  the  case  of  customers  whose  bills  are 
payable  in  advance,  not  to  exceed  an  estimated  thirty  days’  bill ; ( 2 ) in  the  case 
of  customers  whose  bills  are  not  payable  in  advance,  not  to  exceed  the  estimated 
sixty  days’  bill  of  such  customer.  Interest  thereon,  at  the  rate  of  six  per  cent, 
per  annum,  payable  annually  or  upon  the  return  of  the  deposit,  shall  be  paid  by 
the  utility  to  each  customer  making  such  deposit,  for  the  time  such  deposit  was 
held  by  the  utility  and  the  customer  was  served,  unless  such  period  of  time  be 
less  than  three  months. 

b.  No  utility  may  require  from  any  customer  or  prospective  customer  a 
deposit  to  pay  any  part  of  the  cost  of  installation,  except  under  rules  and 
regulations  approved  by  the  Commission  and  set  out  in  the  published  schedules 
of  the  utility. 

c.  No  rental  shall  be  charged  by  any  utility  for  any  meter  installed  by  it, 
which  is  used  by  the  utility  as  the  basis  for  the  rendering  of  bills. 

Rule  9.  Interruptions  of  Service. 

a.  Each  utility  shall  keep  a record  of  all  interruptions  of  service  upon  its 
entire  system  or  major  divisions  thereof,  including  therein  a statement  as  to  the 
time,  duration  and  cause  of  such  interruptions.  Such  record  shall  be  open  at  all 
times  to  public  inspection  and  the  Commission  may  at  any  time  require  from  the 
utility  a copy  thereof. 

Rule  10.  Complaints. 

Each  utility  shall  make  full  and  prompt  investigation  of  all  complaints  made 
to  it  by  its  customers,  either  directly  or  through  the  Commission,  and  it  shall 
keep  a record  of  all  complaints  which  shall  show  the  name  and  address  of 


28 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


complainant,  the  date  and  character  of  the  complaint,  and  the  adjustment  or 
disposition  made  thereof.  The  information  contained  in  such  record  shall  be 
furnished  to  the  Commission  upon  its  request. 

Rule  11.  Information  to  Customers. 

a.  Every  utility  shall  specifically  inform  its  customers  as  to  the  conditions 
under  which  efficient  service  may  be  secured  from  its  system,  and  render  its 
customers  reasonable  assistance  in  securing  lamps  or  other  appliances  best 
adapted  to  the  service  furnished. 

Rule  20.  Meter  Testing  Equipment. 

a.  Every  electric  utility  furnishing  metered  service  shall  own  suitable  working 
standards  for  the  testing  of  electricity  meters  ; and  either  maintain  these  stand- 
ards correct  within  one-half  of  one  per  cent.,  or  apply  the  proper  correction  to 
all  tests.  Secondary  standards  of  some  approved  type  shall  be  owned  and  main- 
tained by  each  utility  having  more  than  250  electricity  meters  in  service. 

Rule  21.  Installation  Tests. 

a.  Each  watt  hour  meter  shall  be  checked  for  correct  connection,  mechanical 
conditions,  suitable  location  and,  if  necessary,  shall  be  adjusted  to  be  correct 
within  one  per  cent,  at  approximately  three-quarters  and  one-tenth  of  the  rated 
capacity  of  the  meter,  by  comparison  of  the  meter  in  its  permanent  position  in 
place  of  service  with  approved  suitable  standards  at  the  time  of  installation  or 
within  thirty  days  thereafter. 

Rule  22.  Periodic  Tests. 

a.  Each  watt  hour  meter  shall  be  tested  according  to  the  following  schedule, 
and  shall  be  adjusted  whenever  it  is  found  to  be  in  error  more  than  one  per 
cent.,  the  tests  both  before  and  after  adjustment  being  made  at  approximately 
three-quarters  and  one-tenth  of  the  rated  capacity  of  the  meter.  The  tests  shall 
be  made  by  comparing  he  meter,  while  connected  in  its  permanent  position,  on 
the  premises  of  the  customer  with  approved  suitable  standards,  making  at  least 
two  test  runs  at  each  load,  of  at  least  thirty  seconds  each,  which  agree  within 
one  per  cent. 

b.  Single  phase  induction  type  meters  having  current  capacities  not  exceeding 
fifty  amperes,  shall  be  tested  at  least  once  every  three  years,  and  as  much 
oftener  as  the  results  obtained  shall  warrant. 

c.  Single  phase  induction  type  meters  having  current  capacities  exceeding 
fifty  amperes,  all  polyphase  meters  having  voltage  ratings  not  exceeding  550 
volts  and  current  capacities  not  exceeding  fifty  amperes  and  all  commutator  meters 
having  voltage  ratings  not  exceeding  550  volts  and  current  capacities  not 
exceeding  fifty  amperes  shall  be  tested  at  least  once  every  twelve  months. 

d.  All  other  watt  hour  meters  shall  be  tested  at  least  once  every  six  months. 
Rule  23.  Fees  for  Meter  Tests. 

a.  The  amount  of  fee  to  be  collected  for  meter  tests  made  in  accordance  with 
the  provisions  bf  paragraph  “b”  of  Rule  5 shall  be  as  follows: 

For  each  single  phase  or  continuous  current  electricity  meter  having  a 

voltage  rating  of  not  exceeding  250  volts  and  a current  capacity  not 

exceeding  twenty-five  amperes  without  having  instrument  transformers. ...$2.00 

For  other  electricity  meters  having  a capacity  not  exceeding  100  amperes 4.00 

For  all  other  electricity  meters 8.00 

Rule  24.  Defective  Meters. 

a.  No  electricity  meter  shall  be  placed  in  service  or  allowed  to  remain  in 
service  which  registers  upon  no  load  or  which  has  an  incorrect  register  constant, 
test  constant,  gear  ratio,  or  dial  train. 

Rule  25.  Voltage  Variation. 

a.  Every  electric  utility  shall  adopt  a standard  voltage  for  the  entire  constant 
potential  system  in  every  city  served  by  it  having  a population  of  1,500  or  more, 
or,  with  the  approval  of  the  Commission,  may  divide  its  distributing  system  in 
such  a city  into  districts  and  adopt  a standard  voltage  for  each  such  district. 
Notice  of  the  adoption  of  such  standard  voltage  shall  be  given  by  the  utility  to 
the  Commission.  Except  as  may  be  caused  by  the  operation  of  ’ apparatus  by  the 
customer,  in  violation  of  the  utility’s  rules,  or  by  the  action  of  the  elements  or 
causes  beyond  the  utility’s  control,  every  electric  utility  shall  maintain  the 
voltage  constant  in  every  such  city  so  that  the  same  shali  not  vary  for  periods 
exceeding  five  minutes  more  than  the  following  amounts : 

1.  Lighting  Circuits:  Between  sunset  and  11  p.  m.  more  than  three  per  cent, 
above  and  five  per  cent,  below  the  standard  voltage  for  such  locality. 

2.  Lighting  Circuits:  Between  11  p.  m.  and  the  following  sunset,  more  than 
five  per  cent,  above  and  ten  per  cent,  below  such  standard  voltage. 

3.  Other  Circuits : More  than  ten  per  cent,  above  or  below  such  standard 
voltage. 

(This  rule  may  be  waived  by  the  customer  by  special  agreement,  separate 
from  his  service  contract  or  application,  particularly  referring  to  this  rule.) 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


29 


Rule  26.  Voltage  Surveys. 

a.  Every  electric  utility  shall  provide  itself  with  one  or  more  portable 
indicating  voltmeters,  and  each  electric  utility  serving  more  than  250  customers 
shall  have  one  or  more  portable  graphic  recording  voltmeters.  Such  instruments 
shall  be  of  a type  and  capacity  suitable  to  the  voltage  supplied.  Bach  electric 
utility  shall  make  a sufficient  number  of  voltage  surveys  to  indicate  the  service 
furnished  from  each  feeder,  and,  when  ordered  by  the  Commission,  from  any 
designated  transformer,  to  satisfy  the  Commission  of  its  compliance  with  the 
voltage  requirements.  Utilities  having  graphic  recording  voltmeters  shall  keep 
at  least  one  of  these  voltmeters  in  continuous  service  at  the  plant,  office,  or 
some  customer’s  premises  ; and  shall  indicate  on  the  graphic  records  the  causes 
of  extreme  variations  in  voltage.  All  voltage  records  are  to  be  kept  open  for 
public  inspection. 

It  is  shown  by  Rule  22  that  a test  every  three  years  an  error  of 
not  more  than  one  per  cent,  is  specified.  Rule  5 indicates  that  a custo- 
mer may  secure  a more  frequent  test  by  the  Commission,  to  be  paid  for 
either  by  the  company  or  customer  at  a rate  shown  in  Rule  23  if  the 
meter  is  more  than  four  per  cent,  fast  or  slow,  respectively. 

Although  the  customer  may  not  understand  so  well  the  measure- 
ment of  electrical  energy,  yet  with  the  safeguards  imposed  by  law,  he 
need  not  fear  fraud  from  this  source  to  any  greater  extent  and  prob- 
ably much  less  than  he  fears  short  weights  in  his  other  purchases. 

Reading  a Meter 

It  is,  however,  desirable  that  a consumer  of  electrical  energy  under- 
stand the  reading  of  a meter.  To  this  end,  several  views  of  meter  dials 
are  given  in  Figure  8 and  the  method  of  reading  discussed. 


INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  READING  DIALS 

A kilowatt-hour  is  equal  to  1,000  watt-hours. 

To  correctly  read  the  sum  indicated  on  the  dial  of  an  integrating  kilowatt- 
hour  meter  the  following  instructions  should  be  carefully  followed : 

The  figures  (tenths,  Is,  10s,  100s,  1000s)  over  each  dial  circle  refer  to  the 
divisions  of  the  circle  over  which  they  stand. 

Therefore,  each  division  on  the  dial  circle  to  the  extreme  right  indicates  .1, 
.2.  .3.  .4  or  .6  of  a kilowatt-hour,  while  a complete  revolution  of  the  hand  or 
pointer  would  be  1.0  or  1 kilowatt-hour,  and  will  have  moved  the  pointer  on  the 
second  dial  circle  one  division  (1  kilowatt-hour). 

Thus  in  reading  diagram  No.  1,  the  first  dial  circle  (that  on  the  extreme 
right)  indicates  .1,  one-tenth,  the  next  (Is)  indicates  1,  the  next  (10s)  indicates 
1,  the  next  (100s)  indicates  1,  and  the  remaining  dial  circle  (1000s)  also  indicates 
1,  making  the  total  reading  or  indication  1111.1  kilowatt-hours. 

A hand  or  pointer  to  be  read  as  having  completed  the  division  must  be  con- 
firmed by  the  dial  before  it  (to  the  right).  It  has  not  completed  the  division  on 
which  it  may  appear  to  rest,  unless  the  hand  before  it  has  reached  or  passed  0, 
or,  in  other  words,  completed  a revolution.  Therefore,  it  is  always  advisable 
to  read  dials  from  right  to  left. 

In  reading  diagram  No.  2,  the  first  dial  circle  (to  the  extreme  right)  indicates 
.9,  nine-tenths.  The  second  hand  apparently  rests  on  0,  but  since  the  first  rests 
only  on  .9  and  has  not  yet  completed  its  revolution,  the  second  dial  circle  also 
indicates  9.  This  9.  placed  before  the  .9  already  obtained,  gives  9.9.  This  is 
also  true  of  the  third  dial  circle.  The  second  dial  circle  hand  at  9 has  not  yet 
completed  its  revolution,  so  the  third  has  not  completed  its  division  ; therefore, 
another  9 is  obtained,  making  99.9.  The  same  is  true  of  dial  circle  4,  thereby 
making  the  total  reading  999.9  kilowatt-hours.  When  the  hand  on  the  first  dial 
circle  (extreme  right)  completes  its  revolution  or  reaches  0,  then  the  reading 
will  be  1000  kilowatt  hours. 

The  hands  are  sometimes  slightly  misplaced.  In  diagram  No.  8 the  first 
dial  circle  (the  extreme  right)  reads  0,  no  tenths.  The  hand  of  the  second  dial 
is  misplaced.  As  the  first  rigesters  0.  the  second  should  rest  exactly  on  a 
division ; therefore  it  should  have  reached  8.  The  three  remaining  dials  are 
correct  and  make  a total  of  9928  kilowatt-hours. 

In  diagram  No.  9 the  second  dial  hand  is  misplaced,  for  since  the  first 
indicates  .1  (one-tenth)  the  second  should  have  just  passed  a division.  As  it  is 
near  to  8 it  should  have  just  passed  that  figure.  The  ramaining  three  dial  circles 
are  approximately  correct.  The  total  indication  is  9918.1  kilowatt-hours. 


30 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


In  diagram  No.  10  the  second  dial  circle  hand  is  slightly  misplaced  by  being 
behind  its  correct  position,  but  not  enough  to  mislead  in  reading.  The  total 
indication  is  9928.3  kilowatt-hours. 

By  carefully  following  these  directions  little  difficulty  will  be  experienced  in 
reading  the  dials,  even  when  the  hands  or  pointers  become  slightly  misplaced. 

Some  meters  do  not  have  the  last  dial  which  is  shown  in  the  above 
diagram  and,  therefore,  do  not  record  “tenths”  of  a kilowatt-hour;  also 
some  do  not  have  the  first  dial.  In  fact,  the  last  dial  is  of  little  use,  as 
one  seldom  needs  to  measure  as  accurately  as  0.1  kwh.;  and  the  first 
dial  is  of  no  use  except  on  meters  for  large  consumers.  Meter  dials 
are  often  designated  other  than  shown  in  Figure  8 by  indicating  the 
number  of  kwh.  for  a complete  revolution  instead  of  for  a single  space 
on  the  dial.  Thus  the  dials  shown  in  Figure  8 could  be  marked  either 
of  the  following  ways: 

As  in  Figure  8:  1000s,  100s,  10s,  Is,  tenths. 

As  often  numbered:  10000,  1000,  100,  10,  1. 

If  the  first  and  last  dials  be  omitted,  as  now  customary  for  a resi- 
dence meter,  and  if  the  second  system  of  marking  be  adopted,  the 
dials  will  be  marked  1000 — 100 — 10,  meaning  that  one  complete  revo- 
lution of  the  last  dial  gives  ten  kwh.  or  one  space  is  one  kwh.;  one 
complete  revolution  of  the  middle  dial  is  100  kwh.,  etc. 


CHAPTER  II 


Electricity  in  the  Home 

This  chapter  is  offered  to  the  public  to  acquaint  it  in  a disinterested 
manner  with  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  many  uses  to 
which  electrical  energy  has  been  applied  in  the  home. 

At  the  outset  it  may  be  stated  that  electrical  energy  is  always 
technically  adaptable  to  any  operation  which  requires  light,  heat  or 
motion,  all  being  forms  of  energy  into  which  electrical  energy  is  con- 
vertible and  into  which  it  must  be  converted  before  its  value  is  realized. 
It  does  not  follow,  however,  that  it  can  always  be  economically  applied 
to  all  such  uses  in  competition  with  other  means  of  securing  the 
desired  light,  heat,  or  motion. 

Electric  Lighting 

Not  many  years  ago  electric  lights  were  considered  a luxury  to  be 
indulged  in  only  by  the  wealthy  or  well-to-do.  Since  that  time, 
improvement  of  electrical  generating  machinery  and  other  influences, 
have  so  reduced  the  cost  of  electric  service  that  electric  lights  are 
rapidly  approaching,  in  our  cities,  a state  of  universal  application  com- 
parable with  that  of  city  water.  Not  the  least  important  influence  in 
thus  reducing  the  cost  of  production,  is  the  reaction  from  the  increased 
production  itself;  all  manufacturing  can  be  done  cheaper  per  unit  of 
output  when  done  on  a large  scale  than  on  a small  one,  and  this  is 
especially  true  in  the  “manufacture”  of  electrical  energy.  Furthermore, 
the  increased  use  has  resulted  in  more  consumers  per  mile  of  wire  and 
consequently  in  a decreased  cost  of  distribution. 

The  cost  of  electric  lighting  has  not,  however,  reached  the  low  cost 
of  kerosene  lamp,  unless  under  very  favorable  conditions  where  a 
cheaper  cost  has  sometimes  been  claimed  for  it.  But  despite  this  fact, 
the  kerosene  lamp  and  most  other  sources  of  light  are  doomed  to 
ultimate  extermination  by  the  new  invader.  The  cause  is  not  far  to 
seek.  Considerations  of  convenience  and  health  outweigh  purely 
economic  reasons.  In  other  words,  electric  lights  are  a luxury  the 
advantages  of  which  so  greatly  transcend  the  increased  cost  as  to  put 
them  practically  into  the  class  of  a present  day  necessity.  It  would  be 
as  futile  to  argue  otherwise  as  it  would  have  been  futile  twenty-five 
years  ago  to  have  argued  for  the  use  of  the  pine  knot  or  the  tallow  dip 
of  our  grandparents  in  preference  to  the  kerosene  lamp  because  of 
cheapness.  The  advantages  of  the  electric  light  may  be  briefly  stated 
thus: 

No  waste  gases  in  the  room. 

Ease  of  lighting  and  extinguishing,  even  from  a distance. 

Reduced  fire  danger. 

No  renewals  of  wall-paper  from  smoky  lamps. 

No  danger  of  explosion. 

No  lamps  for  the  housewife  to  clean  and  fill  daily,  with  the  resulting  kerosene 
smell  permeating  the  house,  and  often  the  food. 

Not  blown  out  by  a gust  of  wind. 

No  danger  of  asphyxiation  from  escaping  gas. 


32 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


One  of  the  greatest  advantages  is  the  ease  of  lighting  and  extin- 
guishing, and  the  chief  source  of  this  convenience  is  the  use  of  the  wall 
switch,  with  its  further  development,  the  “three  way”  switch.  By  the 
use  of  the  former  beside  the  door  you  may  turn  on  the  light  when 
entering  a room  frequently  visited  but  not  continuously  occupied  and 
turn  it  off  when  leaving,  with  resulting  economy  in  use  of  energy,  and 
without  any  inconvenience  whatsoever,  no  matter  how  frequent  the 
visits.  Without  the  wall  switch  many  lights  would  be  burned  contin- 
uously to  avoid  the  irritating  task  of  locating  a lamp  in  midair  and  in  a 
dark  room.  This  convenience,  therefore,  also  reduces  the  consumption 
of  energy. 

With  only  ordinary  economy  in  use,  the  average  monthly  consump- 
tion of  electric  lights  alone  for  a five  or  six-room  family  residence  need 
not  exceed  an  average  of  twenty  kwh.  per  month,  the  cost  of  which 
would  be  nine  cents  per  kwh.  for  the  first  ten  kwh.,  seven  cents  for  the 
next  ten  kwh.,  or  $1.60  per  month  at  Portland  rates  for  service,  which, 
however,  are  below  the  rates  offered  in  most  parts  of  the  state.  Energy 
consumption  will  everywhere  be  given  so  that  a correction  for  local  rates 
can  be  made  easily  by  the  reader. 

Heat  Values  of  Common  Fuels 

An  understanding  of  the  value  and  limitations  of  electrical  energy 
for  heating  and  cooking  requires  a knowledge  of  the  comparative  heat 
values  of  common  fuels. 

The  unit  of  measurement  of  heating  ability  is  called  the  “British 
Thermal  Unit”  and  is  written  “B.  T.  U.”  One  B.  T.  U.  is  the  amount 
of  heat  required  to  increase  the  temperature  of  one  pound  of  water  one 
degree  (Fahrenheit).  The  following  table  shows  the  heating  value  in 
B.  T.  U’s  of  unit  amounts  of  each  common  fuel  or  source  of  heat 
energy  and  much  other  valuable  data  regarding  the  cost  of  these  fuels 
at  Portland  prices.  The  heating  value  of  fuels,  especially  of  coal  and 
wood,  vary  greatly  so  that  all  of  these  figures  except  for  electrical 
energy  are  subject  to  variation  for  different  grades  of  fuel.  They 
represent  merely  average  approximate  values: 


TABLE  I 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


I =■ 


5 § 


a ^ 

fcJD^ej 


o ^ 

© ft 
“lo 

00  LT5 


rri 

5 © « 

« 5 « 

00  o N 


§ftp 
hO  ° 

ftS§ 

o**0. 

O i-l 

c© 


° O 

t-  t- 


Lft 


S « s 

“ o 

W H . 


£ £ 
h ■* 

a a 
ft 


,3 

£ o 


£ 


rH® 


P 

H 

PQ 

G 

a? 

3 

; *3 


ii 


M o 

o >»  2 ° 

fcJD  +->  rH 

||  'S  'S 

O © 1~>  +-> 
a m w 
C o o 


S a,  <J  U U 


Crude  Oil 

1 gal.  equals  7.9  lbs. 

1 bbl.  equals  42  gals. 

or  332  lbs. 

18,000  per  lb. 

$1.25  per  bbl. 

0.13  lb. 

0.0715c 

2.1c 

1-42 

or  21/2% 

Douglas  Fir  Wood 

1 cord  equals 
2,500  lbs. 

1 

8,000  per  lb. 

$6  per  cord 
! 0.427  lb. 

0.102c 

3.0c 

1-29 

or  3 %% 

o 

00  *3 
§ 6 

■3  £ 
s 0 

3 os 

S 

P 

~ 3 

P 5 P 0 . 

© — t-.  O 

ft  ^ m t-  cq  ^ 

© 00  ,_i  . 1 

0 ft  (M  . . eO 

8}^  0 
rH 

i 

a c 

|3 

per 

er  tc 

i lb. 

75c 

lc 

17 

6% 

g T3  j 

s 

00 

4 p 

0.25 

0.1 

5. 

1- 

or 

£ S 

<0  i-H 

co  **■ 

TH 

£ 

‘3 

o 

© 

© 'a 
<«  2 

0 CD 

1 | 

© .S 
g _ 
o © 

_ 3 


«H  P d 

0 . > 

■M  H ^ 

1 n |>? 

§o-2 

® O ^ h 

.2  © §,t> 

,3  o 5 © 


— G 
© 2 
.°  2 

£ 


x m w 
o o o 
U O O 


34 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


Thus  from  the  last  line  in  this  table  electrical  energy  for  heating 
purposes  would  cost  from  five  to  forty-two  times  as  much  as  other 
fuels  at  approximate  Portland  prices,  assuming  that  each  fuel  is  used 
without  any  waste.  The  cheapest  fuel  is  crude  oil  and  the  next  fir 
wood,  being  respectively  one-forty-second  and  one-twenty-ninth  as 
expensive  as  electrical  energy,  while  denatured  alcohol  costs  nearly  as 
much  as  electrical  energy  and  gas  one-fifth  as  much.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  that  wood  is  not  much  cheaper  than  bituminous  coal  and  costs 
forty-five  per  cent  more  than  crude  oil. 


ELECTRIC  HEATING  OF  BUILDINGS 
Relative  Efficiencies 

The  figures  in  the  table  represent,  of  course,  the  total  heat  produc- 
ing abilities  of  the  several  fuels,  assuming  none  to  be  wasted.  In 
reality  a fuel  cannot  be  burned  in  a stove  or  furnace  without  waste.  In 
a stove  some  escapes  as  smoke,  which  is  merely  unburned  fuel,  and 
some  escapes  up  the  chimney  as  invisible  heated  gas;  in  a hot  water, 
hot  air,  or  steam  furnace,  some  heat  also  escapes  from  the  pipes  con- 
ducting the  heat  to  the  rooms  so  that  more  fuel  is  commonly  required 
to  heat  a house  by  furnace  than  by  stove.  Thus  the  coal  furnace  of  a 
steam  or  hot  water  boiler  averages  less  than  fifty  per  cent,  efficiency, 
while  gas  is  said  to  yield  about  ninety  per  cent,  efficiency.  In  heating 
electrically  by  direct  radiation  from  resistance  heaters  no  losses  what- 
ever are  suffered.  Heating  by  fuel,  therefore,  has  not  quite  the  enor- 
mous economy  over  electric  heating  that  it. would  appear  to  have  from 
the  above  table.. 

Experiments  at  Seattle 

The  municipal  generating  plant  of  the  City  of  Seattle  has  conducted 
tests  to  determine  the  energy  consumption  for  heating  Seattle  resi- 
dences. Due  to  the  similarity  of  climatic  conditions,  these  tests 
indicate  what  might  be  expected  in  Portland  and  the  Willamette  Valley. 
The  data  follows: 


TABLE  II 


225  37th  Ave.  N.,  Seattle 
Installed  Load,  32  kw. 


Date  Consumption 

March  18,  1914 000  kwh. 

April  30,  1914 1,928  kwh. 

May  28,  1914 968  kwh. 

June  29,  1914 : 534  kwh. 

July  30,  1914 79  kwh. 

August  31,  1914 260  kwh. 

September  29,  1914 3,015  kwh. 

October  28,  1914 2,950  kwh. 

November  30,  1914. 6.357  kwh. 

December  30,  1914 9,551  kwh. 

January  29,  1915 8,068  kwh. 

February  27,  1915 5,728  kwh. 

March  19,  1915 3.412  kwh. 


1505  36th  Ave.,  Seattle 
Installed  Load,  32  kw. 


Date  Consumption 

November  7,  1914 000  kwh. 

December  7,  1914 5,820  kwh. 

January  6,  1915 9,720  kwh. 

February  5,  1915 5,200  kwh. 

March  5,  1915 5,040  kwh. 

April  5,  1915 3,180  kwh. 

May  5,  1915 280  kwh. 

June  4,  1915 : 260  kwh. 

July  6,  1915* 0 kwh. 

August  4,  1915* 0 kwh. 

September  3,  1915* 0 kwh. 

October  5,  1915 500  kwh. 

November  5-  1915f 3,000  kwh. 


Total,  one  year 42,850  kwh.  Total,  one  year 33,000  kwh. 

640  feet  of  radiation  in  each  installation. 


* Away  during  summer, 
t Estimate. 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


35 


The  houses  referred  to  are  two-story,  eight-room  residences  and 
were  heated  previously  by  a hot  water  system  using  coal  furnace. 
Electric  heaters  were  installed  in  series  with  the  furnace,  with  a 
cut-off  between  the  furnace  and  the  electric  heaters.  There  is  no 
record  of  the  cubical  contents  of  the  residences  or  the  number  of 
square  feet  of  window  area  or  wall  area.  Each  installation  has  an 
installed  capacity  of  32  kw.,  which,  during  the  entire  year  (8,760 
hours)  could  consume,  if  run  continuously  at  full  load,  thirty-two  times 
8,760,  or  280,320  kwh.  The  load  factor  in  the  first  example  was  thus 
42,850  divided  by  280,320  equals  15.3  per  cent.  In  the  second  example, 
if  July,  August  and  September  be  assumed  equal  to  the  same  months  in 
the  first  example,  then  the  annual  consumption  would  become  36,354 
kwh.,  and  the  load  factor  thirteen  per  cent.  In  both  cases  the  installed 
load  is  one  kw.  for  twenty  square  feet  of  radiation  (hot  water). 

To  have  produced  the  same  amount  of  heat  in  a furnace  by  means 
of  bituminous  coal,  assuming  forty-five  per  cent  efficiency  of  the  coal 
furnace,  and  100  per  cent  for  the  electrical  furnace,  would  have  required 
the  following  amounts  of  coal: 

FIRST  EXAMPLE  SECOND  EXAMPLE 

42,850  x 3,413 

=13.3  tons.  11.3  tons. 

0.45  x 12,200  x 2,000 

which  at  $9.00  per  ton  would  have  cost  respectively  $120  and  $102  per 
year,  or  only  0.28  cents  per  kwh.  of  electric  energy  consumed. 

It  is  legitimate,  however,  to  add  to  the  cost  of  coal  the  following 
items  which  do  not  enter  into  the  cost  of  electric  service: 


Kindling  per  year  $ 2.00 

Hauling  ashes 5.00 


Damage  to  house  and  furnishings  from  coal  and  ash  dust 20.00 

Repairs  and  cleaning  of  furnace  and  chimney 10.00 

Attending  labor  and  inconvenience,  nine  months  at  $5.00 45.00 

$82.00 

This  added  to  the  cost  of  coal,  $120  and  $102,  gives  total  costs  of 
$202  and  $184  respectively.  To  have  cost  the  same  for  electric 
heating  the  prices  of  electric  service  could  not  have  exceeded  the 
absurdly  low  figures  of  $6.30  and  $5.75  respectively  per  kw.  of 
installed  capacity  per  year,  or  0.47  and  0.51  cents  respectively  per  kwh. 
of  actual  consumption. 

In  another  experiment  at  Seattle  a solid  concrete  house  of  five  rooms 
with  floor  area  418  square  feet,  cubic  contents  3,252  cubic  feet,  outside 
wall  area  491  square  feet,  and  window  area  127  square  feet,  required 
2,430  kwh.  in  December  and  10,250  kwh.  for  the  year  with  an  installed 
load  of  nine  kw.  direct  radiation  or  two  and  eight-tenths  watts  per 
cubic  foot  of  space  heated. 

The  former  houses  have  an  installed  capacity  of  thirty-two  kw.,  as 
compared  with  nine  kw.,  or  three  and  six-tenths  times  as  large,  and  the 
consumption  of  the  first  was  likewise  about  four  times  as  large  for 
both  the  annual  and  December  record.  Using  the  same  proportion  in 
the  case  of  fuel,  the  coal  cost  for  heating  this  room  would  have  been 
about  $30  per  year  at  $9.00  per  ton.  This  probably  represents  approx- 


36 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


imately  the  minimum  cost  of  fuel  for  five-room  cottages  or  bungalows 
in  this  climate  when  economically  used.  It  is  apparent  that  the  house 
is  not  as  well  heated  as  the  two  preceding  eight-room  houses. 

To  this  should  be  added  the  items  for  ash  disposal,  damages,  clean- 
ing of  furnace  and  attendance,  which  would  bring  the  total  up  to  $50 
or  $60  per  year,  equivalent  in  cost  to  electrical  service  at  0.5  cents  to 
0.6  cents  per  kwh. 

In  the  case  of  heating  with  gas,  if  a suitable  furnace  were  used,  the 
efficiency  probably  would  be  nearly  twice  that  with  coal  or  wood  and  the 
attendance,  ashes  and  other  similar  items  eliminated  or  much  reduced. 
The  cost  of  fuel  alone  for  the  equivalent  value  of  one  kwh.  would  be 
(see  fuel  table) : 


16.7  x 3 cents 

88  x .90  (efficiency  of  gas) 

or  0.5  5 cents  per  kwh.,  to  which  something  should  be  added  for  furnace 
repairs  and  attendance,  say  0.65  cents  in  all. 

Crude  oil  would  also  burn  with  a good  efficiency,  assumed  to  be 
seventy-five  per  cent,  but  its  storage  and  use  make  it  more  expensive 
than  its  relative  cost  per  B.  T.  U.  would  indicate.  The  cost  of  the  oil 
would  be  about  0.1  cents  per  kwh.  and  total  cost  of  perhaps  0.25  cents. 

The  above  data  indicates  that  in  order  for  electric  heating  to  com- 
pete on  the  basis  of  cost  alone  with  fuel  for  large  residences,  electric 
service  must  be  furnished  at  approximately  the  following  rates: 

Anthracite  coal  at  $14.00  per  ton,  electric  service  at  0.7  cents  per  kwh. 

Bituminous  coal  at  $9.00  per  ton,  electric  service  at  0.5  cents  per  kwh. 

Gas  at  $1.00  per  1,000  cubic  feet,  electric  service  at  0.65  cents  per  kwh. 

Crude  oil  at  $1.25  per  barrel,  electric  service  at  0.25  cents  per  kwh. 

Douglas  fir  at  $6.00  per  cord,  electric  service  at  0.4  c^nts  per  kwh. 

Conditions  When  Favorable 

It  is  not  to  be  hoped  that  electric  service  can  be  furnished  at  the 
house  for  these  prices  except  perhaps  under  the  most  favorable  and 
peculiar  circumstances.  On  the  Minidoka  Irrigation  Project  in  Idaho 
(U.  S.  Rec.  Ser.)  a large  hydro-electric  project  is  developed  for  irriga- 
tion pumping.  The  irrigation  load  comes  in  the  summer  and  does  not 
conflict  with  the  heating  season  in  the  winter.  The  hydro-electric 
plant  must  operate  in  the  winter  to  care  for  the  lighting  business  and 
small  motors  in  the  adjacent  towns  and  in  the  country,  so  that  most  of 
the  expense  of  attendance  is  incurred  irrespective  of  the  size  of  the  load. 
With  sufficiently  large  service  wires  and  meters  in  many  cases  already 
upon  the  premises  of  the  settlers,  they  can  be  served  without  additional 
expense  except  the  trivial  cost  of  lubricating  oil  and  machinery  repairs, 
and  in  any  case  the  cost  of  service  is  only  the  cost  of  extra  large  dis- 
tribution wires  and  customer  service-meters  and  transformers.  The 
water  would  otherwise  flow  over  the  dam  and  would  not  be  stored,  so 
that  operation  of  the  station  is  insignificant  in  cost.  The  power  plant 
built  for  irrigation  is  self-sustaining  for  that  purpose  and  any  income 
from  electric  heating  in  the  winter  is  almost  clear  profit.  This  service 
is  therefore  “off-peak”  service  (in  this  case  meaning  “not  coinciding 
with  the  yearly  peak”)  the  principles  of  which  have  been  previously 
discussed. 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


The  monthly  rates  for  heating  obtaining  on  the  Minidoka  project 
are  as  follows:  * 


TO  DISTRIBUTER 


Per  device,  per  1,000  watts,  September  1-June  1 . $0.50 

Per  device,  per  1,000  watts,  June  1-September  1 1.50 

TO  CONSUMER 

Per  device,  per  1,000  watts,  September  1-June  1 $1.00 

Per  device,  per  1,000  watts,  June  1-September  1 2.50 


The  power  is  sold  by  the  U.  S.  R.  S.  to  distributing  companies  in  each 
city  at  the  rates  shown  in  the  first  column,  the  contract  providing  that 
they,  in  turn,  shall  not  charge  the  customer  to  exceed  the  rates  in  the 
second  column.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  rate  to  the  consumer  for  the 
irrigation  season  is  made  two  and  five-tenths  times  as  great  per  month 
as  the  off-peak  load  during  the  remainder  of  the  year. 

If  we  apply  the  consumers’  rate  to  the  second  eight-room  house  of 
Table  I,  the  cost  of  the  thirty-two  kw.  of  installed  heaters  would  be 
$9.00  per  kw.  (nine  months)  or  $288  for  the  season.  The  total  con- 
sumption was  33,000  kwh.  and  the  rate  per  kwh.  would,  therefore,  have 
been  0.87  cents. 

In  the  case  of  the  five-room  house  at  Seattle,  the  nine  kw.  installed 
capacity  would  have  cost  nine  times  nine,  or  $81  for  the  heating  season, 
and  at  the  total  consumption  of  10,250  kwh.  the  equivalent  price  would 
have  been  0.79  cents  per  kwh.  In  reality,  Minidoka  has  a colder  season 
than  Seattle  and  the  total  annual  cost  would  have  exceeded  that  at 
Seattle. 

These  rates  are  such  as  to  make  possible  the  competition  of  elec- 
trical with  fuel  heating  for  people  of  moderate  income,  as  one  may 
reasonably  consider  the  advantages  of  cleanliness  and  convenience  as 
worth  the  difference  in  actual  cost. 

Similar  possibilities  of  offering  cheap  winter  service  for  electrical 
heating  are  likely  to  be  found  in  any  irrigation  district  where  a distri- 
bution system  already  exists,  and  where  power  is  developed  for  irriga- 
tion pumping  beyond  the  capacity  which  can  be  sold  for  December 
lighting  and  small  motor  service,  so  that  the  surplus  can  be  sold  without 
much,  if  any,  additional  capital  investment. 

In  Oregon,  the  California-Oregon  Power  Company  operating  in 
Jackson  and  Josephine  counties  has  been  promoting  the  use  of  elec- 
trical heating  with  the  result  that  a number  of  customers  make  use  of 
electrical  heating  service  for  heating  a part  of  their  residences,  and  in 
one  or  two  instances  the  entire  residence  is  electrically  heated.  The 
“flat”  rates  in  effect  are:  $3.00  per  month  for  one  kw.  air  heater,  $4.00 
per  month  for  a two  kw.  heater,  $5.00  per  month  for  a three  kw.  heater, 
and  at  this  rate  for  any  additional  capacity,  no  heating  to  be  done 
during  the  irrigation  season. 

The  five-room  cottage  at  Seattle  required  a nine  kw.  installation 
which  would  cost  at  this  rate  $15  per  month.  At  this  price  the  average 
consumer  could  not  consider  electric  heating  except  as  a luxury.  If 
operated  at  full  capacity  twenty-four  hours  per  day,  this  rate  would  be 

* Extract  from  Thirteenth  Annual  Report  U.  S.  R.  S.,  page  36. 


38 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


equivalent  to  only  0.23  cents  per  kwh.  In  reality,  however,  no  one 
would  use  it  continuously,  or  if  they  did  would  any  benefit  be  derived 
at  certain  times,  as  a large  part  of  the  energy  would  need  to  be  wasted 
on  warm  days  and  during  the  nights  to  avoid  overheating.  This  service 
is  not  furnished  during  May,  June,  July  and  August  because  of  need 
for  the  power  for  irrigation.  If  these  four  months  be  eliminated  from 
the  first  Seattle  experiment  (Table  I),  then  the  total  consumption  for 
eight  months  would  be  41,000  kwh.,  which  is  twenty-two  per  cent,  of 
what  could  have  been  generated  by  continuous  operation  at  full  capacity 
twenty-four  hours  per  day  (load  factor  is  twenty-two  per  cent).  Assum- 
ing similar  conditions  to  obtain  for  Medford  service,  and  assuming  that 
the  installed  equipment  is  sufficient  to  heat  the  house  during  the 
coldest  weather,  the  actual  average  use  probably  would  not  exceed 
twenty-two  to  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  the  maximum  (twenty-five  per 
cent,  load  factor),  which  would  place  the  cost  of  energy  actually  used  at 
about  one  cent  per  kwh.  This  is  in  the  neighborhood  of  twice  the  rate 
previously  estimated,  at  which  electricity  can  compete  with  soft  coal  or 
wood.  Moreover,  if  paid  for  on  the  flat  rate  as  given  above,  the  thirty- 
two  kw.  installed  capacity  at  Seattle  would  cost  thirty-two  divided  by 
three  times  $5.00,  or  $53.33  per  month,  a prohibitive  price  for  the  man 
of  moderate  means. 

In  certain  classes  of  buildings  and  certain  rooms  in  other  buildings, 
such  as  hotel  lobbies  and  railway  stations,  heating  is  almost  continuous, 
twenty-four  hours  per  day,  during  the  winter  season.  In  such  cases  it 
is  conceivable  that  the  consumption  of  enough  kilowatt-hours  might  be 
realized  for  a given  connected  load,  if  paid  for  on  a flat  rate,  to  so  reduce 
the  cost  per  kwh.  as  to  make  electric  heating  practicable  at  these  Rogue 
River  Valley  rates. 

Suggested  Economies 

There  are  means  also  by  which  the  cost  of  heating  in  a home  could 
be  reduced  below  that  indicated  in  the  foregoing  analysis  for  the  flat 
rate  service  under  discussion.  Few,  if  any,  home  owners  heat  the  entire 
house  at  one  time.  Many  bedrooms  are  never  heated,  or  are  only  heated 
during  the  night  or  for  a short  time  before  retiring.  The  kitchen  is 
not  heated  during  the  evening,  but  would  need  to  be  during  the  day 
time.  This  suggests  the  plan  of  heating  only  the  living  rooms  and 
kitchen  during  the  daytime,  omitting  the  kitchen  and  substituting  the 
bedrooms  during  the  night  to  an  amount  to  suit  the  requirements  of 
the  occupant.  The  heaters,  which  are  very  light  in  weight,  might  be 
carried  to  the  bedrooms  from  the  kitchen,  or,  preferably,  permanent 
heaters  could  be  installed  in  all  rooms  and  double  throw  switches  be 
provided  so  that  all  could  not  be  heated  at  once.  The  consumer  on  the 
flat  rate  would  then  be  required  to  pay  for  little  if  any  more  than  the 
maximum  which  he  could  use  at  any  one  time. 

There  is  another  method  of  economizing  in  the  cost  of  electric  heat- 
ing on  a flat  rate.  Thus,  in  Portland  the  minimum  winter  temperature 
is  seldom  below  thirty-two  degrees  F.,  and  then  only  for  short  periods. 
By  providing  electrical  heating  capacity  sufficient  only  for  this  temper- 
ature, and  depending  upon  a fireplace,  furnace  or  stove  for  the  remain- 
ing heat  required  during  rare  “cold  snaps,”  a large  economy  could  be 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


39 


effected.  Thus,  if  the  first  eight-room  house  in  Table  I can  be  main- 
tained at  seventy  degrees  F.  during  fifteen  degrees  F.  weather  with  the 
thirty-two  kw.  installation,  then  only  seventy  minus  thirty-two  divided 
by  seventy  minus  fifteen,  or  about  seventy  per  cent,  as  much  heating 
capacity  would  be  required  to  heat  the  house  in  thirty-two  degrees  F. 
weather,  or  only  about  twenty-two  kw.  At  the  flat  rate  paid  in  Med- 
ford this  would  save  ten  divided  by  three  times  $5.00,  or  $16.70  per 
month  in  the  cost  of  electric  service,  or  $133.30  for  the  eight  months’ 
season.  If  the  thermometer  should  drop  to  fifteen  degrees  F.  for  a 
period  of  one  month  during  the  winter,  the  cost  of  fuel  for  furnace, 
fireplace  or  stove  in  the  living  rooms  to  provide  for  the  difference 
between  a temperature  of  thirty-two  degrees  F.  and  fifteen  degrees  F. 
would  be  trivial  in  comparison  with  the  $133.30  for  electric  service. 

By  the  practice  of  reasonable  economy  in  house  heating  it  should  be 
possible  under  Rogue  River  Valley  rates  to  reduce  the  cost  of  electric 
heating  to  within  a sufficient  margin  of  the  cost  of  furnace  heating  to 
justify  its  adoption  for  families  who  are  fortunately  enough  situated 
financially  to  be  able  to  pay  some  extra  for  the  luxury  and  convenience 
of  electric  heating.  You  turn  the  switch  and  the  “stove”  is  fully 
heated  in  a few  seconds;  there  are  no  ashes,  no  smoke,  no  black  hands 
and  no  soiled  furnishings.  It  is  all  as  simple  and  convenient  as  the  use 
of  the  electric  light.  You  can  turn  on  the  heat  from  your  bed  in  the 
morning,  or  you  can  have  the  clock  do  so  at  a definite  time  before  you 
awake.  All  of  these  conveniences  are  worth  paying  for,  for  one  who  can. 

Possibilities  of  Only  Off-Peak  Service  in  Large  Cities 

Electrical  heating  is  not  likely  to  meet  with  as  much  success  in 
large  cities  as  in  those  smaller  cities  which  are  located  in  irrigated 
regions,  for  in  any  large  city  the  peak  lighting  load  on  any  electrical 
system  comes  in  December  during  the  heating  season,  and  the  heating 
service  ceases  to  be  a seasonal  off-peak  load.  Furthermore,  electrical 
heating  by  direct  radiation  does  not  lend  itself  to  daily  off-peak  service. 
If  the  heat  were  shut  off  for  two  hours  or  more  during  the  evening 
peak,  the  house  would  become  quite  cold.  The  Seattle  experiments  are 
said  to  have  demonstrated  that  electrical  service  for  heating  must  be 
upon  an  off-peak  basis  or  be  prohibitive  in  cost.  Consequently,  they 
have  there  abandoned  direct  radiation  and  have  applied  the  electrical 
energy  to  heating  water  in  an  ordinary  hot  water  heating  system  with 
the  addition  of  a hot  water  storage  tank  of  sufficient  size  to  heat  the 
house  during  the  evening  peak  while  the  service  is  cut  off.  This  is 
objectionable  because  of  losses  of  heat  from  the  storage  tank,  boiler,  and 
piping  system,  and  consequent  reduction  in  efficiency  partly  offsetting 
the  advantage  in  price  of  energy  gained  by  off-peak  use.  It  is  also 
objectionable  because  it  sacrifices  one  of  the  most  important  possibilities 
of  electrical  heating,  i.  e.  the  fact  that  the  heat  can  be  turned  on 
instantly  to  full  temperature  and  instantly  shut  off  again  when  not 
needed,  the  same  as  an  electric  light,  without  the  necessity  of  waiting 
for  the  heating  of  a large  volume  of  water  before  getting  any  benefit. 

Under  these  fundamental  difficulties  it  is  quite  probable  that  con- 
tinuous electrical  heating  of  residences  will  not  make  much  progress  in 
the  near  future  except  among  the  wealthy  and  at  isolated  localities 


40 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


favored  by  very  special  conditions  conducive  to  low  rates  of  service, 
one  instance  of  which  has  been  discussed  previously,  i.  e.  for  secondary 
cities  in  irrigated  regions.  Some  c the  types  of  small  radiators  designed 
to  be  attached  to  the  lighting  or  cooking  circuit  and  used  during  chilly 
evenings  in  the  summer  when  the  expense  and  trouble  of  starting  a 
furnace  would  not  be  warranted,  are,  however,  becoming  popular  and 
for  such  service  are  proDably  cheaper  than  starting  a furnace.  How- 
ever, as  the  use  of  electric  energy  becomes  ever  more  universal,  the 
price  will  progressively  lower  because  of  the  smaller  cost  of  distribution 
and  one  would  indeed  be  justified  in  predicting  a considerable  ultimate 
consumption  for  heating  purposes. 

AUXILIARY  ELECTRICAL  COOKING  AND  HEATING  UTENSILS 
General  Facts 

In  the  previous  pages  the  conclusion  was  reached  that  the  heating 
of  houses  by  electricity  is  not  generally  economical  except  in  localities 
favored  by  special  conditions.  These  conclusions  must  be  greatly  mod- 
ified for  many  special  applications  of  heat,  such  as  for  electric  flat- 
irons, toasters  and  many  other  small  utensils  which  can  be  operated 
from  the  lighting  circuit. 

It  is  a matter  of  common  observation  that  a wood  or  coal  fire  is 
very  uneconomically  used  for  cooking  purposes.  In  a wood  or  coal 
range  the  area  of  effective  cooking  surface  is  very  small  compared  with 
the  total  area  heated.  To  heat  two  or  three  stew  kettles,  frying  pans, 
or  other  utensils  a whole  range  must  be  heated  up  and  the  hot  iron 
surfaces  will  heat  the  atmosphere  and  radiate  heat  from  the  entire 
surface  of  the  range,  whereas  only  that  amount  furnished  to  the  small 
area  of  the  kettles  or  other  utensils  is  accomplishing  its  purpose.  In 
winter  the  heat  which  is  wasted  for  cooking  purposes  is  of  some  use  in 
heating  the  house,  but  in  summer  is  not  only  total  waste  but  also  a 
source  of  discomfort  and  fatigue  to  the  housewife. 

Although  a gas  flame  is  concentrated  underneath  the  cooking 
utensils  and  is  more  efficient  than  wood  or  coal,  it  is  nevertheless 
impossible  of  as  efficient  application  as  electrical  cooking.  The  diffi- 
culty lies  in  the  fact  that  the  gas  flame  must  be  open  to  the  atmosphere 
to  receive  oxygen  for  combustion  and  for  the  escape  of  the  burned 
gases  which  carry  away  and  thus  waste  a large  amount  of  heat.  Not 
only  does  it  thus  waste  the  heat  but  it  also  consumes  the  oxygen  of  the 
room  and  substitutes  burned  gases  more  or  less  harmful  in  nature 

Electrical  heating  Is  done  by  means  of  resistant  wires.  We  do  not 
know  much  about  the  real  nature  of  electricity  but  we  do  know  that  in 
flowing  through  a metallic  wire  it  encounters  a resistance  which  causes 
a part  of  its  energy  to  be  used  to  heat  the  wire.  Electrical  lighting  and 
electrical  heating  differ  only  in  one  respect.  In  heating,  only  enough 
electricity  is  passed  through  the  wires  to  heat  them  to  a dull  red  color 
which  does  not  burn  the  wire,  while  for  lighting  they  are  heated  to  a 
white  heat  and  must  be  in  a vacuum  or  in  some  gas  containing  no 
oxygen,  to  prevent  them  from  burning  up.  In  either  case,  these  resis- 
tance wires  will  work  as  well  in  an  air-tight  chamber  as  elsewhere. 


PRIMER  OP1  ELECTRICITY 


41 


This  permits  an  electrical  “hot-plate”  or  heating  stove  to  be  sur- 
rounded on  all  sides,  except  the  side  next  to  the  vessel  to  be  heated,  by 
asbestos,  porcelain  or  some  similar  substance  which  is  a poor  conductor 
of  heat  and  will  largely  prevent  its  escape  except  into  the  vessel  to  be 
heated.  Thus,  for  example,  in  one  make  of  electric  ranges,  two  types 
are  furnished,  one  with  a thick  walled  insulated  oven,  and  one  with  iron 
walls,  the  latter  requiring  fifty  per  cent,  more  energy  for  the  same 
purpose,  due  to  the  waste  of  heat. 

Thus,  electrical  cooking  can  be  very  efficient,  whereas  cooking  by 
fuels  is  very  inefficent.  Contrast  this  fact  with  the  fact  that  in  heating, 
both  electricity  and  fuels  are  efficient;  although  electricity  is  more 
efficient  than  fuels,  yet  not  to  nearly  as  great  an  extent  as  for  cooking. 
In  fact,  the  loss  in  cooking  by  fuel  consists  of  heat  which  escapes  into 
the  room  instead  of  into  the  substance  being  cooked.  In  heating,  this 
would  not  be  called  a loss;  hence  the  greater  efficiency  of  heating.  This 
condition  is  what  makes  electrical  cooking  economical  in  many  cases 
where  electrical  heating  would  be  expensive.  In  cooking  by  fuels  the 
waste  of  heat  is  very  great  and  electricity,  although  having  a much 
greater  cost  per  B.  T.  U.,  can  be  used  with  so  much  greater  economy  as 
to  compete  with  fuels  in  many  cases  where  electrical  heating  would  be 
prohibitive. 

Although  electrical  cooking  can  thus  be  made  very  efficient,  yet  it 
is  to  be  regretted  that  many  of  the  cooking  utensils  now  on  the  market 
have  not  taken  full  advantage,  in  their  design,  of  the  possibilities  of 
economy  to  the  consumer  along  this  line,  probably  in  order  to  reduce 
the  first  cost  which  too  often  appeals  to  the  consumer  as  the  most 
important  consideration. 

In  giving  the  cost  of  electrical  cooking  and  other  operations,  Port- 
land prices  will  generally  be  referred  to  because  they  apply  to  a greater 
proportion  of  the  population  than  any  other  one  rate  and  complete 
statistics  would  be  too  voluminous.  Energy  consumption  is  always 

given,  however,  so  that  coresponding  costs  elsewhere  can  always  be 

figured.  They  are  generally  higher  elsewhere,  as  would  be  expected  to 
some  extent,  since  a large  consumption  in  a thickly  populated  area  can 
always  be  served  more  cheaply,  other  conditions  being  equal.  In  most 
Portland  homes  on  the  9-7-4  schedule  the  first  ten  kwh.  cost  ninety 

cents  and  the  next  ten  kwh.  seventy  cents,  or  a total  of  $1.60  per 

month  for  the  first  twenty  kwh.  If  this  amount  of  energy  is  regularly 
consumed  for  lighting,  as  it  would  be  in  the  average  home,  then  any 
additional  energy  for  flat-irons,  toasters,  and  the  many  other  uses  would 
^ost  only  four  cents  per  kwh. 

Flat-Irons 

After  the  electric  light,  the  next  utensil  in  point  of  present  popu- 
larity in  the  home  is  the  electric  iron.  About  3,026,000  are  now  said 
to  be  in  use  in  the  United  States.  It  consumes  about  550  watts  or 
0.55  kw.  (oj»e  kw.  equals  1,000  watts).  If  used  in  a home  already 
electrically  lighted  on  the  Portland  9-7-4  schedule,  this  additional  load 
wouls*  receive  the  benefit  of  the  low  rate  in  the  sliding  scale.  The 
flat-iron  would  then  cost  0.55  times  four,  or  two  and  two-tenths  cents 
Der  hour  if  used  continuously.  In  actual  use  the  current  must  be  fre- 


42 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


quently  disconnected  to  prevent  overheating,  and  the  actual  cost  prob- 
ably would  not  exceed  two  cents  per  hour  for  Portland  rates,  provided 
the  customer’s  consumption  would  otherwise  equal  twenty  kwh.  If  not, 
then  a part  of  the  flat-iron  service  would  need  to  be  charged  at  seven 
cents  per  kwh.,  or  about  three  and  one-half  cents  per  hour  of  use.  A 
usual  size  of  flame  on  a gas  stove  consumes  about  twenty  cubic  feet  of 
gas  per  hour,  which,  at  $1.00  per  1,000  cubic  feet  would  cost  two  cents 
per  hour.  Heating  is  continuous  with  a gas  flame,  one  iron  being 
heated  while  another  is  being  used,  and  the  cost  of  ironing  is,  therefore, 
about  the  same  with  gas  as  electricity.  The  economy  of  time,  more 
uniform  heat,  no  changing  of  irons,  and  absence  of  a fire  in  warm 
weather,  contribute  to  make  electric  irons  popular  utensils  in  a large 
proportion  of  homes  equipped  with  electric  lights. 

Toaster 

This  utensil  consumes  about  the  same  amount  of  energy  as  the  flat- 
iron, or  550  watts.  It  will  readily  toast  one  slice  of  bread  per  minute. 
At  four  cents  per  kwh.  the  cost  of  operation  would  thus  be  0.55  times 
four  equals  two  and  two-tenths  cents  per  hour,  or  twenty-seven  slices 
of  toast  for  once  cent.  Higher  rates  of  service  would  increase  this  but 
even  with  energy  at  ten  cents  per  kwh.,  ten  slices  could  be  toasted  for 
one  cent.  Electric  toasters  are  usually  made  of  very  ornamental  design, 
nickel  plated  and  highly  polished,  to  be  used  on  the  dining  table,  connec- 
tion being  made  to  a lighting  socket  above.  This  eliminates  the 
necessity  of  frequent  trips  to  the  kitchen  and  permits  toast  to  be  made 
on  the  table  at  about  the  rate  consumed  by  a medium  family.  About 
412,000  toasters  are  now  said  to  be  in  use  in  the  United  States. 

Warming  Pad 

This  is  one  of  the  most  useful  applications  of  electrical  energy.  It 
takes  the  place  of  the  time-honored  rubber  “hot-water  bag,”  the  heated 
brick,  or  flat  iron  for  local  heat  applications  to  the  sick,  for  warming 
the  bed  at  night  before  retiring,  or  keeping  it  warm  thereafter.  The 

heating  wires  are  in  the  interior  of  a soft  pad,  and  the  temperature  in 

the  more  modern  ones  is  automatically  controlled  by  a “thermostat”  or 
automatic  switch  which  turns  off  the  electricity  automatically  so  that 
it  cannot  overheat.  In  addition,  a regulating  switch  is  provided  at  one 
corner  of  the  pad  which  can  be  readily  operated  in  the  dark  to  secure  a 
different  temperature.  This  appliance  eliminates  the  continual  changing 
of  hot  applications,  the  heating  of  water  and  refilling  of  hot  water 

bottles  in  caring  for  the  sick,  for  it  will  retain  its  temperature  indefi- 

nitely until  turned  off.  For  the  highest  temperature,  some  styles  con- 
sume the  same  amount  of  energy  as  a flat-iron  or  toaster  but  as  gen- 
erally used,  need  only  a very  small  portion  of  this  amount,  probably 
seventy-five  watts  for  continuous  use. 

Hot  Plates  or  Table  Stoves 

These  are  heating  plates  or  grids,  made  in  several  sizes  and  styles 
of  ornamental  design,  intended  for  use  on  the  dining  table  for  cooking 
small  dishes  or  for  keeping  the  food  hot  or  boiling  slowly  while  the 
meal  progresses.  They  are  usually  adjustable  in  temperature  by  means 
of  a switch.  One  style  consists  of  a heated  grid  which  for  broiling  of 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


43 


meat  is  placed  on  top  of  the  steak  in  a china  platter  on  the  dining 
table,  without  injury  to  the  platter,  and  by  thus  broiling  from  the  top 
the  juices  are  retained.  The  same  appliance  may  be  used  for  toasting 
and  cooking.  This  consumes  about  600  watts  and  the  hot  plates  from 
400  to  800  watts,  depending  upon  the  size.  The  former  will  broil  a 
thick  steak  well  done  in  about  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes,  which  would 
result  in  a consumption  of  about  150  or  200  watt-hours,  costing,  at 
four  cents  per  kwh.,  less  than  one  cent  to  broil. 

Coffee  Percolators 

These  consume  about  55  0 watts  and  will  make  about  eight  cups  of 
coffee  in  twelve  minutes  at  a total  cost  for  electricity  of  less  than 
one-half  cent. 

Chafing  Dishes 

These  are  electrically  operated  at  600  watts  consumption,  and  hence 
at  a cost  of  about  two  and  four-tenths  cents  per  hour,  and  serve  several 
useful  purposes  best  known  to  the  ladies. 

Water  Heaters  for  the  Table 

These  are  made  of  various  sizes  from  half-pint  upward  and  provided 
with  resistance  wires  concealed  in  the  bottom  and  with  a lamp  cord  and 
plug  to  be  attached  to  the  lighting  circuit.  They  can  be  used  for  making 
many  small  cooking  operations  on  the  table  and  for  keeping  other 
dishes  warm. 

Another  variety,  known  as  an  “immersion  heater”  consists  of  a 
resistance  wire  concealed  in  a small  metal  tube  or  disk  which  is  placed  in 
any  dish  on  the  table  in  the  same  manner  as  a spoon  and  thus  heats  it 
or  keeps  it  hot  while  eating.  They  vary  greatly  in  consumption,  the 
largest  using  about  600  watts. 

HOUSEHOLD  POAVER  UTENSILS 

In  addition  to  the  heating  and  cooking  utensils  above  considered, 
s there  are  several  small  electric  power  utensils  whose  merits  deserve 
special  discussion.  It  is  indeed  in  the  field  of  the  power  appliances  that 
electric  service  appears  to  offer  the  greatest  service  for  the  least  cost. 

Electric  Fan 

Thus,  an  eight-inch  electric  fan,  with  all  of  its  apparent  activity 
which  suggests  a large  consumption  of  electricity,  in  reality  consumes 
only  forty  watts,  the  same  as  the  usual  size  of  electric  tungsten  lamp. 
A twelve-inch  fan  consumes  about  seventy-five  watts.  You  all  seek  to 
get  within  the  range  of  an  electric  fan  when  you  visit  a restaurant. 
Why  not  have  one  or  several  in  your  home?  The  costs  of  operation  at 
four  cents  per  kwh.  would  be  about  six  hours  for  one  cent  for  an  eighth 
inch  fan,  and  three  hours  for  one  cent  for  a twelve-inch  fan.  At  these 
prices  one  can  hardly  afford  to  be  without  this  source  of  summer 
comfort. 

Electric  Sewing  Machine  Motors 

These  are  a great  convenience  in  the  home.  They  consume  only 
about,  forty  watts  and  would  run  for  six  hours  for  a cost  of  only  one 
cent  with  service  at  four  cents  per  kwh.  The  machine  is  started  and 


44 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


adjusted  perfectly  by  means  of  a small  foot  switch;  increasing  the 
pressure  increases  the  speed,  and  the  machine  stops  instantly  when  the 
pressure  is  released. 

Vacuum  Cleaner 

This  is  one  of  the  most  useful  applications  of  electricity  in  the  home. 
It  is  not  only  more  convenient  but  also  more  sanitary  and  vastly  more 
efficient  than  a broom.  Dust  underneath  a heavy  firm  grained  carpet 
is  readily  drawn  through  the  carpet  and  into  the  cleaner  by  its  powerful 
suction.  No  dust  is  raised  in  the  room  with  its  unsanitary  results 
necessitating  “dusting”  after  sweeping  as  when  a broom  is  used.  The 
energy  consumed  by  the  usual  size  of  vacuum  cleaner  used  in  the  home 
is  only  about  150  to  190  watts,  which  would  cost,  at  four  cents  per  kwh., 
only  one  cent  for  one  and  one-third  to  one  and  one-half  hours’  use. 

Washing  Machine  and  Wringer 

Many  are  now  regularly  operated  by  electric  motor  and  rapidly 
becoming  popular.  If  a laundress  is  employed  to  come  to  the  home  on 
washing  day,  much  of  her  time  would  be  saved  for  the  reason  that  both 
wringer  and  washing  machine  are  electrically  operated.  The  machine 
goes  on  washing  one  batch  of  clothes  while  she  wrings  the  last  batch, 
and  furthermore  this  wringing  requires  no  hard  turning  but  only  feed- 
ing in  the  clothes  with  both  hands,  and  is,  therefore,  quicker.  These 
machines  are  built  in  many  sizes,  but  the  usual  size  for  a family  washing 
requires  a one-quarter  horsepower  motor  and  consumes  about  0.25 
kwh.  per  hour  for  use,  costing  only  one  cent  at  a rate  of  four  cents  per 
kwh.  The  laundress  only  needs  to  be  at  the  machine  for  a small  part 
of  the  time,  which  permits  her  to  prepare  each  batch  for  the  machine 
and  to  wring  and  rinse  the  last  batch  while  the  machine  is  running; 
while  for  hand  work  she  would  either  be  using  a rubbing  board  or 
turning  the  handle  of  the  machine  herself  during  this  time.  The  saving 
of  time  and  cost  for  the  laundress  would  exceed  by  several  times  the 
cost  of  the  electric  service.  By  thus  relieving  the  washing  operation  of 
its  heavy  physical  exertion,  many  housewives  who,  from  lack  of  strength 
hire  their  washings  done,  could  do  their  own  washings  with  little 
exertion  and  much  saving  in  cost,  except  the  first  cost  of  the  equipment. 

Other  Small  Utensils 

In  addition  to  the  utensils  already  described,  it  should  be  said  that 
electrical  energy  has  already  been  applied  to  nearly  every  purpose 
requiring  light,  heat  or  motion,  some  not  heretofore  mentioned  being: 
glue  pots,  soldering  irons,  hair  dryer,  curling  iron,  vat  dryers,  oil 
tempering  bath,  small  table  ovens  (ovenettes),  travelers’  pressing  iron 
for  attachment  to  lighting  fixtures  in  your  hotel  room,  small  motor 
driven  knife  grinder  and  silverware  polisher  (buffer),  ice  cream  freezer, 
dough  mixer,  flour  sifter,  meat  grinder,  egg  beater,  waffle  iron,  broiler, 
vulcanizer,  plate  warmer,  cigar  lighter,  household  ozonator,  foot 
warmer. 

In  a kitchen,  where'  several  small  utensils  are  to  be  operated  by 
motor,  one  motor  with  a small  line  shaft  near  the  ceiling,  and  belts  to 
each  utensil  arranged  along  a shelf,  are  sometimes  used,  or  the  motor  is 
sometimes  made  detachable  and  moved  from  one  utensil  to  another. 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


45 


COOKING  EXCLUSIVELY  BY  ELECTRICITY 

While  previous  discussion  has  indicated  the  great  convenience  and 
frequent  economy  of  many  electric  cooking  utensils  for  special  purposes, 
yet  the  advisability  of  complete  replacement  of  fuel  by  electric  cooking 
is  not  so  generally  obvious.  Considerable  study  of  relative  advantages 
and  disadvantages  is  required. 

Relation  to  Heating  the  Kitchen 

The  wood  or  coal  range  diffuses  heat  in  all  directions,  only  a very 
small  part  finding  its  way  into  the  food  to  be  cooked;  the  gas  range  is 
superior  in  this  respect  as  the  flame  for  most  processes  is  concentrated 
on  the  vessel  to  be  heated,  and  much  less  heat  escapes  merely  to  warm 
the  room;  the  electric  range  is  yet  far  more  efficient,  for  when  properly 
built  the  heat  escapes  almost  exclusively  into  the  material  to  be  cooked. 
This  great  advantage,  however,  is  sometimes  in  another  way  a dis- 
advantage. Many  housewives  now  use  chiefly  wood  or  coal  in  cold 
weather  when  the  kitchen  needs  heating  and  use  gas  in  the  summer 
when  it  is  desired  to  keep  the  kitchen  as  cool  as  possible.  In  thiB 
particular  then,  the  electric  range  is  still  more  advantageous  than  a 
gas  or  wood  range  in  the  summer  and  less  so  in  the  winter.  In  a house 
heated  by  furnace,  this  winter  disadvantage  does  not  apply  but  where 
stoves  are  used,  as  in  many  small  homes,  it  has  some  importance.  Just 
as  gas  cooking  is  more  popular  in  summer  than  in  winter,  so  also  would 
be  the  case  with  electric  cooking. 

Relation  to  the  Hot  Water  Supply 

Again,  most  houses  are  now  equipped  with  a circulating  water  heater 
and  tanks.  It  is  customary  to  heat  this  tank  by  means  of  a coil  in  the 
furnace  during  the  winter  and  by  means  of  a gas  heater  during  the 
summer.  To  substitute  electric  for  gas  cooking  exclusively  would 
require  electric  heating  of  the  tank  in  the  summer  or  the  payment  of  the 
minimum  gas  rate  to  permit  its  use  for  this  purpose  alone  in  the  sum- 
mer. For  one  who  is  committed  to  the  use  of  the  hot  water  tank  even 
in  summer,  the  practicability  of  exclusive  electric  cooking  is  therefore 
related  to  the  practicability  and  economy  of  electric  heating  of  the 
water  tank. 

Additional  Wiring  and  Meter  Required 

In  the  case  of  the  small  utensils  previously  considered,  the  demand 
for  energy  is  so  small  that  they  can  be  served  from  the  lighting  circuit 
by  the  very  simple  expedient  of  attaching  a plug  and  cord  in  the  place 
of  the  lamp  bulb.  This  can  commonly  be  done  up  to  a demand  of  600 
watts  as  for  a flat-iron,  toaster,  etc. 

The  proposal  to  cook  exclusively  by  electricity  demands  a range  with 
its  possible  consumption  of  3,000  or  more  watts,  so  that  a separate 
meter  and  separate  service  wires  are  required,  thus  usually  entailing 
additional  expense,  although  in  many  places  the  service  companies  are 
absorbing  this  expense  to  encourage  electric  cooking.  The  rate  for 
electric  range  service  in  Portland  has  been  reduced  to  three  cents  per 
kwh.  if  fed  by  such  separate  and  heavier  service  wires  and  recorded  by 


46 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


a separate  meter.  If  an  electric  range  is  installed,  the  Portland  com- 
panies agree  that  the  other  smaller  utensils  may  all  be  fed  from  the 
cooking  circuit  at  this  three  cent  rate,  whereas  they  would  otherwise 
get  the  benefit  only  of  the  four  cent  rate  in  the  9c-7c-4c  schedule.  The 
utensils  previously  described  can,  therefore,  be  operated  for  three 
quarters  of  the  prices  previously  stated  if  an  electric  range  is  also  in 
use. 

Rapidity  of  Cooking 

In  fairness  to  other  methods  it  should  be  said  that  electric  cooking 
as  now  practiced  is  slower  than  cooking  by  fuel.  A gas  flame  may 
cover  the  whole  bottom  of  a stew  kettle,  thus  subjecting  it  to  an  intense 
heat.  It  is  obvious  that  the  high  temperature  of  a flame  cannot  be 
secured  with  resistance  wires  else  they  would  burn  up  or  melt.  A 
means  of  increasing  the  speed  of  electric  cooking  will  be  discussed  later. 

Circulating  Water  Heaters 

Several  makes  of  electric  circulating  water  heaters  are  on  the 
market.  They  are  placed  in  the  pipe  line  of  an  ordinary  kitchen  hot 
water  tank  such  as  is  usually  heated  by  a pipe  coil  in  the  furnace  or 
stove.  The  maintenance  of  hot  water  by  the  furnace  coil  in  winter  is 
ordinarily  sufficient,  economical  and  as  convenient  and  automatic  as 
electric  service.  When  such  a hot  water  tank  is  heated  by  a coil  in 
the  furnace  or  stove  the  hot  water  is  a by-product;  the  tank  is  usually 
located  in  the  kitchen  and  the  heat  it  radiates  helps  to  warm  the 
room  and  is  not  lost  from  the  heating  system.  When  the  water  tank 
is  heated  by  the  electric  heater,  the  heat  radiated  is  also  used  td 
heat  the  room  but  is  in  general  uneconomical  for  this  purpose,  as  pre- 
viously discussed  under  that  subject.  This  leads  to  the  necessity  of 
heavy  lagging  to  prevent  the  escape  of  heat  if  electricity  is  to  be 
adapted  to  this  service. 

In  the  Rogue  River  Valley  cities,  a cheap  flat  rate  is  made  for  these 
water  heaters  of  $3.00  per  month  for  a one  kw.  heater  and  $5.00  per 
month  for  a two  kw.  heater.  These  rates  amount  to  less  than  0.5  cents 
per  kwh.  if  operated  continuously.  The  companies  in  Portland  offer  a 
rate  of  $5.00  for  a one  kw.  heater  alone,  or  $3.50  in  connection  with  an 
electric  range  with  double  throw  switch  so  that  both  cannot  be  used  at 
once.  The  former  rate  is  about  equivalent  to  0.9  cents  per  kwh.  if 
used  all  of  the  time  available. 

It  is  questionable,  however,  if  electric  heating  of  water  tanks  will 
ever  become  very  popular  except  in  summer,  even  at  these  low  rates, 
because  of  the  fact  that  at  other  times  this  service  is  a by-product  of 
house  heating. 

Instantaneous  Water  Heaters 

Heaters  are  on  the  market  which  may  be  attached  to  the  faucet  of 
a bath  tub,  lavatory  or  sink  so  that  turning  on  the  water  also  turns  on 
the  electricity  with  sufficient  capacity  to  heat  the  stream  of  water  as 
rapidly  as  it  flows  through  the  heater,  thereby  obtaining  hot  water  at 
once. 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


47 


This  is  a purpose  very  much  to  be  desired,  as  it  would  avoid  the 
continual  waste  of  heat  by  radiation  from  the  usual  kitchen  tank  as 
with  the  above  mentioned  circulating  heater.  It  cannot,  however,  be 
accomplished  without  either  a very  slow  rate  of  flow  of  water  or  a 
very  large  demand  on  rate  of  use  of  electric  energy.  Thus,  from  Table 
I,  one  kwh.  produces  3,413  B.  T.  U.  of  heat-energy,  of  which  3,000  B.  T. 
U.  would  be  effective  if  the  efficiency  were  88  per  cent.  From  the 
definition  of  a B.  T.  U.,  this  would  heat  3,000  pounds  per  hour  of  water 
through  one  degree  F.,  or  equivalent.  Now,  during  the  winter,  water 
would  need  to  be  heated  from  about  forty  degrees  F.,  to  110  degrees  F, 
for  bath  or  similar  purposes,  a total  increase  of  seventy  degrees.  One 
kw.  could  raise  only  3,000  divided  by  seventy,  or  forty-three  pounds  per 
hour  through  this  range  of  temperature.  This  is  equivalent  to  one 
quart  in  about  three  minutes;  a rate  of  heating  probably  sufficient  for 
shaving  mug,  lavatory  or  sink,  but  entirely  inadequate  for  a bath  tub 
as  the  water  would  probably  cool  nearly  as  rapidly  as  furnished. 

It  would  seem  to  the  writer  that  to  be  practicable,  except  for  the 
above  small  uses,  at  least  one  quart  of  water  per  minute  should  be 
heated,  requiring  3,000  watts,  or  three  kw.,  for  its  accomplishment, 
From  the  standpoint  of  the  central  station,  such  equipment  would  not 
offer  a desirable  load  because  of  its  large  demand  of  short  duration. 
This  demand  could  only  be  met  in  a house  already  specially  equipped 
with  large  wires  and  meter  for  serving  a kitchen  range,  and  would 
probably  then  require  some  increase  in  equipment,  or  provision  of  a 
double  throw  switch  so  that  range  and  water  heater  could  not  both  be 
used  at  once.  Under  these  conditions  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that 
instantaneous  bath  water  heating  will  be  offered  by  the  companies  at 
a cheap  enough  rate  to  become  very  popular  for  residences,  although 
for  small  uses  of  hot  water,  or  for  bath  purposes  in  a building  already 
provided  with  large  service  wires  and  meter  for  other  purposes  it  may 
prove  desirable  from  the  standpoint  of  the  consumer  and  not  seriously 
objectionable  to  the  company.  One  might  safely  predict  that  this 
load  would  always  be  of  off-peak  nature,  coming  either  in  the  morning 
or  in  the  late  evening,  except  in  the  case  of  the  small  demand  for  use 
in  the  lavatory.  It  would  seem  to  the  writer  that  no  serious  effect  on 
the  system  would  be  felt  by  connecting  any  small  heating  units  for  the 
latter  purpose  to  the  lighting  circuit  or  permanently  to  the  cooking 
circuit,  and  any  large  units  for  bath  purposes  to  the  cooking  circuit 
with  a double-throw  switch  to  prevent  their  use  while  the  range  is  in 
operation. 

The  use  of  these  instantaneous  heaters  is  really  in  the  experimental 
stage  and  not  enough  is  now  known  regarding  their  operation  to  permit 
a satisfactory  estimate  of  the  conditions  of  service  and  rates  governing 
their  use. 

Kitchen  Ranges 

These  are  made  in  many  sizes  and  styles  with  appearance  very 
similar  to  gas  ranges.  The  burners  of  the  gas  range  are  replaced,  how- 
ever, by  electric  heating  wires  sometimes  exposed  and  sometimes  con- 
cealed below  a metal  disk  making  a so-called  “hot-plate”  or  stove.  A 


48 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


range  is  usually  provided  with  two  or  more  such  hot-plates  about  eight 
inches  in  diameter  and  adjustable  to  two  or  three  rates  of  energy  con- 
sumption, said  to  be  “two-heat”  plates  or  “three-heat”  plates.  One 
style  can  be  regulated  to  250  watts,  500  watts  or  1,000  watts  energy 
consumption.  A stew,  for  example,  is  first  brought  up  to  a boil  by 
using  1,000  watts;  the  switch  should  then  be  turned  to  500  watts  or 
even  to  250  watts  to  complete  the  process  by  slow  boiling. 

A great  advantage  possessed  only  by  the  electric  range  is  that  of  a 
fixed  rate  of  cooking  or  baking.  If  the  hot-plate  switch  is  turned  to 
1,000  watts,  for  example,  the  resulting  heat  will  always  be  the  same  and 
cooking  can  be  done  with  uniform  results  by  timing  the  operation.  This 
is  especially  useful  in  baking,  for  which  some  ranges  have  an  automatic 
circuit  breaker  which  can  be  set  to  turn  off  the  current  at  any  desired 
time.  This  would  permit  one  to  start  Sunday  dinner  before  going  to 
church  and  find  it  properly  cooked  and  still  hot  upon  return.  It  is 
also  entirely  practicable  to  put  breakfast  foods  or  other  foods  on  the 
stove  at  night  and  to  turn  on  the  heat  from  the  bedroom  upon  rising 
or  even  to  have  it  automatically  turned  on  by  a clock  at  the  desired 
time  so  that  when  dressed  and  ready  to  eat,  a part  of  the  breakfast  will 
be  ready.  Toast  can  then  be  made  on  the  table  at  the  rate  of  one  slice 
per  minute  while  eating,  thus  greatly  economizing  the  valuable  morning 
hours. 

Present  Cost  of  Electrical  Cooking 

It  is  a very  difficult  task  to  procure  data  representative  of  the  cost 
of  electric  cooking  just  as  it  would  be  of  gas,  or  other  methods.  The 
reason  for  this  is  the  wide  latitude  in  efficiency  of  different  cooks. 
One  cook,  at  a cost  for  gas  of  perhaps  $1.25  or  $1.50  per  month,  will 
often  do  fully  as  much  cooking  as  her  neighbor  can  do  at  a cost  at 
least  twice  as  great.  You  have  probably  all  seen  a kettle  upon  the  gas 
stove  with  the  flame  leaping  out  far  from  under  the  kettle  on  all  sides. 
If  the  gas  is  regulated  so  that  the  bottom  of  the  kettle  is  covered  with 
flame,  nothing  is  accomplished  by  increasing  the  flame.  Likewise,  you 
have  all  seen  an  open  kettle  boiling  violently  during  the  whole  process 
of  cooking,  making  it  necessary  to  frequently  replace  the  water  lost  by 
steam  to  prevent  boiling  dry.  This  is  absurd;  the  temperature  of  vio- 
lently boiling  water  is  no  greater  than  that  for  gentle  boiling.  Also  it 
is  true  that  a cover  on  a kettle  retains  much  of  the  heat  otherwise  lost 
by  escape  of  steam  and  by  radiation  and  convection,  but  if  the  kettle 
tends  to  “boil  over”  it  appears  to  be  customary  to  remove  the  cover 
instead  of  to  reduce  the  flame.  Other  wastes  of  gas  are  customarily 
indulged  in  by  the  average  cook. 

Similar  possibilities  of  economy  or  waste  exist  under  the  conditions 
of  electric  service.  For  this  reason,  it  is  only  possible  to  compare  the 
general  average  consumption  of  a large  number  of  ranges  for  families 
of  known  sizes.  If  you  are  economical,  you  can  then  depend  upon  get- 
ting along  with  less  than  the  average  and  otherwise  with  more. 

The  “Electric  Range  Committee”  of  the  “Northwest  Electric  Light 
and  Power  Association”  (Proceedings,  1915)  have  accumulated  con- 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


49 


siderable  data  bearing  upon  the  cost  of  operating  electric  ranges.  The 
four  following  tables,  Nos.  Ill,  IV,  V and  VI,  give  the  actual  operating 
results  of  four  apartment  house  range  installations: 

TABLE  III 

Apartment  House  at  15  Irving  Street,  Worcester,  Mass. 


Total  number  suites 18 

Total  number  occupied 16 

Total  number  people -37 


No.  of 

Apts. 

No.  in  j 
Family 

| 

Days  . Kwh. 
Used  Used 

Kwh. 

per 

Day 

Kwh. 

per 

Month 

I 

Kwh.  per 
Person 
per  Day 

Cost  per  Month — 30  Days 
Bate  per  Kwh. 

3c  | 

4c 

5c 

1L 

3 

89  62 

.70 

21 

.23 

$ .63 

$ .84 

$1.05 

2L 

2 

89  168 

: 1.9 

57 

.95 

1.71 

2.28 

2.85 

3L 

2 

89  373 

| 4.2 

| 126 

j 2.1 

3.78 

5.04 

6.30 

4L 

2 

69  221 

j 3.2 

96 

j 1.6 

; 2.88 

3.84 

4.80 

1R 

3 

89  431 

s 4.85 

1 145 

! 1.61 

4.35 

5.80 

7.25 

2R 

2 

89  135 

1.5 

45 

.75 

1.35 

1.80 

2.25 

3R 1 

3 

89  354 

4.0 

120 

1.33 

3.60 

4.80 

6.00 

4 R 

2 

89  141 

1.6 

48 

.80 

5 1.44 

1.92 

2.40 

1 i 

2 ! 

89  178 

2.0 

i 60 

1.00 

1.80 

2.40 

3.00 

2 

89  162 

1.8 

54 

.90 

1.62 

2.16 

; 2.70 

3 

2 

I 89  189 

2.1 

63 

1.05 

1.89 

2.52 

3.15 

4 

1 

i 89  65 

.73 

22 

1 .73 

.66 

.88 

1.10 

5 

3 

i 69  151 

2.2 

66 

1 .73 

1.98 

2.64 

3.30 

6 

vacant 

7 

3 

89  255 

j 2.87 

86 

i .96 

2.58 

3.44 

4.30 

8 

2 

89  166 

i 1.85 

1 55 

.92 

; 1.65 

2.20 

2.75 

9 . . 

vacant 

1 

10 

3 

! 45  100  . 

2.2 

66 

1 73 

1.98 

2.64 

i 3.30 

Average  kwh.  per  person  per  day,  1.02. 


TABLE  IV 

Jensen  Apartments,  Great  Falls,  Montana 


Total  number  suites.. , 21 

Total  number  occupied 21 

Total  number  people 52 


I 

No.  of 
Apt9. 

No  of 
Boom 

| 

No.  in  j 
Family 

Days 

Used 

Kwh. 

Used 

Kwh. 

per 

Kwh. 

per 

Kwh.  per 
Person 

Bate  per  Kwh. 

Cost  per  Month — 30  Days 

Day 

Month 

per  Day 

3c 

4c 

5c 

Base- 

ment 

4 

2 

420 

1343 

3.2 

96 

1.6 

$2.88 

$3.84 

$4.80 

101 

5 

3 

420 

! 1290 

3.1 

92 

1.03 

2.76 

3.68 

4.60 

102 

5 

3 

270 

1261 

4.7 

140 

1.6 

4.20 

5.60 

7.00 

103 

2 

2 

390 

844 

2.2 

6? 

1.1 

1.95 

2.60 

3.25 

104 

3 

2 

| 420 

1 1328 

3.2 

95 

| 1.6 

2.85 

3.80 

4.75 

105 

3 

2 

360 

836 

2.3 

70 

! 1.15 

2.10 

2.80 

3.50 

201 

5 

2 

420 

i 861 

2.0 

61 

1.0 

1.83 

2.44 

3.05 

202 

5 

2 

' 420 

j 1311 

3.1 

94 

1.55 

2.82 

3.76 

4.70 

203 

3 

I 2 

1 420 

570 

1.4 

41 

.70 

1.23 

1.64 

2.05 

204 

3 

2 

390 

812 

2.1 

62 

1.05 

1.86 

2.48 

3.10 

205 

3 

2 

! 360 

773 

2.1 

64 

1.05 

1.92 

2.56 

3.20 

301 

5 

2 

1 420 

1111 

2.6 

79 

1.3 

2.37 

3.16 

3.95 

302 

5 

3 

i 420 

i 1660 

3.9 

119 

1.3 

3.57 

4.76 

5.95 

303 

3 

! 2 

420 

777 

1.8 

55 

.90 

1.65 

2.20 

2.75 

304 

3 

2 

420 

; ii57 

2.8 

83 

1.4 

2.49 

3.32 

4.15 

305 

3 

3 

1 420 

942 

2.2 

67 

.73 

2.01 

2.68 

3.35 

401 

5 

5 

1 360 

’ 1131 

3.1 

94 

.62 

2.82 

3.76 

4.70 

402 

5 

5 

1 390 

| 2223 

5.7 

171 

1.1 

5.13 

6.84 

8.55 

403 

3 

2 

1 390 

762 

1.9 

58 

.95 

1.74 

2.32 

2.90 

404 

3 

2 

I 420 

i 1128 

2.7 

81 

1.35 

2.43 

3.24 

4.05 

405 

3 

2 

| 420 

j 896 

2.1 

64 

1.05 

1.92 

2.56 

3.20 

Average  kwh.  per  person  per  day,  1.15. 


50 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


TABLE  V 

Whitmore  Apartments,  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 


Total  number  suites  26 

Total  number  occupied  24 

Total  number  people  71 


No.  of 
Apts. 

No.  of 
Booms 

No.  in 
Family 

Days 

Used 

Kwh. 

Used 

Kwh. 

per 

Day 

Kwh. 

per 

Month 

Kwh.  per 
Person 
per  Day 

Bate  per  Kwh. 

Cost  per  Month — 30  Day* 

3c  i 

4c 

5c 

1 

3 

4 

54 

175 

3.2 

96 

.80 

$2.88  ! 

$3.84 

$4.80 

2 

2 

2 

57 

95 

r.7 

51 

.85 

1.53 

2.04 

2.55 

3 

4 

4 

62 

160 

2.5 

75 

.62 

2.25 

3.00 

3.75 

4 

4 

4 

78 

264 

3.4 

102 

.85 

3.06 

4 08 

5.10 

5..'. 

4 

4 

51 

97 

1.9 

57 

.48 

1.71 

2.28 

2.85 

6 

3 

1 

53 

30 

.5 

i 15 

.50 

.45 

.60 

.75 

7 

3 

2 

53 

205 

4.0 

I 120 

2.00 

3.60 

4.80 

6.00 

8 

2 

3 

17 

48 

2.8 

84 

.93 

2.52 

3.36 

4.20 

21 

3 

2 

57 

151 

2.6 

! 78 

1.30 

2.34 

3.12 

3.90 

22 

2 

2 

60 

129 

2.1 

63 

1.05 

1.89 

2.52 

3.15 

23 

4 

3 

44 

198 

4.5 

135 

1.50 

4.05 

5.40 

6.75 

24 

4 

4 

29 

47 

1.6 

! 48 

.40 

1.44 

1.92 

2.40 

26 

3 

54 

184 

3.4 

: 102 

1.13 

3.06 

4.08 

5.10 

27 

2 

3 

58 

84 

1.4 

42 

.47 

1.44 

1.92 

2.40 

31 

3 

3 

81 

240 

2.9 

87 

.97 

2.61 

3.48 

4.35 

32 

2 

2 

72 

74 

1.0 

30 

.50 

.90 

1.20 

1.50 

33 

2 

2 

83 

230 

2.7 

81 

1.35 

2.43 

3.24 

4.05 

34 

2 

4 

78 

181 

2.4 

72 

.60 

2.16 

2.88 

3.60 

35.*, 

2 

2 

72 

293 

4.0 

120 

2.00 

3.60 

4.80 

6.00 

36 

2 

4 

76 

60 

.8 

24 

.20 

.72 

.96 

1.20 

37 

2 

2 

74 

108 

1.4 

42 

.70 

1.26 

1.68 

2.10 

38 

2 

3 

74 

145 

2.0 

60 

.67 

1.80 

2.40 

3.00 

39 

2 

2 

59 

118 

2.0 

60 

1.00 

1.80 

2.40 

3.00 

40 

1 7 

6 

42 

231 

2.5 

165 

.42 

4.95 

6.60 

8.25 

Average  kwh.  per  person  per  day,  0.89. 


TABLE  VI 

Alpine  Apartments,  Anaconda,  Montana 


Total  number  suites  29 

Total  number  occupied 22 

Total  number  people  50 


Days 


5c 


$3.45 

2.10 

2.25 
3.30 

3.75 
3.00 

1.65 
4.05 

2.75 

4.25 

4.65 

4.65 

6.25 

3.30 

2.30 
1.40 

5.65 
5.10 

.90 

3.45 

1.95 

2.95 


No.  of 
Apts. 

No.  of 
Booms 

! No.  in 
| Family 

1 

Days 

Used 

! 

Kwh. 

Used 

Kwh. 

per 

Day 

Kwh. 

per 

Month 

Kwh.  per 
Person 
per  Day 

Cost  per  Month — 3C 
Bate  per  Kwh 

3c 

4c 

3B 

2 

2 

59 

135 

2.3 

69 

1.15 

$2.07 

$2.76 

2C 

3 

3 

55 

78 

1.4  ! 

42 

.47 

1.26 

1.68 

3C I 

3 

3 

52 

81 

1.5 

45 

.50 

1.35 

1.80 

1C 

2 

3 

45 

„ 99 

2.2 

66 

.73 

1.98 

2.64 

ID  

3 

2 

45 

112 

2.5  i 

75 

1.25 

2.25 

3.00 

3F | 

2 

2 

40 

82 

2.0 

60' 

1.00 

1.80 

2.40 

2F i 

2 

3 

42 

46 

1.1 

33 

.37 

.99 

1.32 

2G 

2 

2 

36 

99 

2.7 

81 

1.35 

2.43 

3.24 

2B: 

2 

2 

[ 55 

102 

! 1.85  1 

55 

.92 

1.65 

2.20. 

3A 

3 

2 

55 

157 

! 2.85 

85 

1.42 

2.55 

3.40 

3H  

3 

3 

55 

173 

3.1 

93 

1.03 

2.79 

2.72 

2 A 

3 

2 

55 

172 

3.1 

93 

1.50 

2.79 

3 72 

2H  

3 

4 

55 

228 

4.15 

125 

1.04 

3.75 

5.00 

A 

3 

2 

37 

82 

2.2 

66 

1.10 

1.98 

2.64 

1G 

2 

2 

25 

38 

1.52 

46 

.76 

1.38 

1.84 

IF 

2 

1 

19 

18 

.95 

28 

.95 

.84 

1.12 

1A 

3 

2 

24 

90 

3.75 

! 113 

1.87 

3.39 

4.52 

E 

3 

3 

5 

17 

3.4 

j 102 

1.13 

3.06 

4.08 

B 

2 

2 

23 

14 

.61 

18 

.30 

.54 

.72 

3D  

3 

; 2 

14 

32 

2.3 

69 

1.15 

2.07 

2.76 

D 

3 

1 

17 

22 

1.3 

39 

1.30 

1.17 

1.56 

3G 

2 

i 2 

32 

62 

1.95 

59 

.97 

1.77 

2.36 

Average  kwh.  per  person  per  day,  1.01. 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


51 


From  these  tables  the  average  consumption  per  person  is  seen  to 
vary  from  0.89  to  1.15  kwh.  per  day,  and  the  average  of  all  four  tables  is 
1.02  kwh.  per  day.  During  the  average  month  this  would  amount  to 
thirty-one  kwh.  per  person,  and  at  Portland  prices  (three  cents  per 
kwh.)  would  cost  ninety-three  cents  per  month  for  each  member  of  the 
family.  Thus,  an  average  family  of  five  persons  would  have  an  average 
bill  of  $4.65  per  month. 


COST  OP  ELECTRIC  COOKING  AT  BISMARCK,  N.  D. 

(Electric  World,  June  6,  1914) 

The  Hughes  Electric  Company,  of  Bismarck,  N.  D.,  furnishes  central  station 
service  in  Bismarck,  Fort  Lincoln  and  Mandan,  N.  D.,  and  in  Glendive,  Mont., 
and  has  connected  to  its  lines  about  a hundred  electric  ranges,  energy  to  operate 
which  is  sold  at  four  cents  per  kwh.  Herewith  is  given  a compilation  of  the 
average  bills  of  these  hundred  customers  for  ten  months,  making  a mean 
monthly  cost  of  $2.83  for  electric  cooking: 

$3.09  August  $3.82 

2.09  September  2.88 

2.89  October  2.74 

2.54  November  2.04 

4.04  December  2.18 


March 
April  . 
May  ... 
June  ... 
July  ... 


Average  $2.83 

The  above  data  does  not  reveal  the  total  number  of  persons  served 
but  the  average  bill  of  $2.83,  if  reduced  to  three  cents  per  kwh.,  would 
amount  to  $2.12  per  month,  which  is  certainly  not  more  than  the 
average  cost  of  gas,  per  family,  for  cooking  purposes,  and  probably  less. 


ELECTRICITY  FOR  COOKING  AND  HEATING 

R.  C.  Powell,  Superintendent  of  Electrical  Distribution,  Pacific  Gas 
and  Electric  Company,  in  Oakland,  Cal.,  says  as  follows: 


One  kwh.  of  electricity  contains  3,412  B.  T.  U. 

One  cubic  foot  of  gas  averages  600  B.  T.  U. 

Electricity  is  used  for  heating  and  cooking  purposes  at  an  average  efficiency 
of  seventy-five  per  cent. 

Gas  is  used  for  heating  and  cooking  purposes  at  an  average  efficiency  of 
twenty-five  per  cent. 

Effective  heat  units  in  one  kwh.  of  electricity  2,559  B.  T.  U. 

Effective  heat  units  in  one  cubic  foot  of  gas  150  B.  T.  U. 

Therefore,  sixty  kwh.  of  electricity  is  equivalent  to  (approximately)  1,000 
cubif’  feet  of  gas. 

Therefore, 


TABLE  VII 


Gas  at  $0.75  per  M. 
Gas  at  0.90  per  M. 
Gas  at  1.00  per  M. 
Gas  at  1.25  per  M. 
Gas  at  1.50  per  M. 
Gas  at  1.75  per  M. 
Gas  at  2.00  per  M. 
Gas  at  2.25  per  M. 
Gas  at  2.50  per  M. 


equals  electricity  at 
equals  electricity  at 
equals  electricity  at 
equals  electricity  at 
equals  electricity  at 
equals  electricity  at 
equals  electricity  at 
equals  electricity  at 
equals  electricity  at 


1.25  cents  per  kwh. 

1.50  cents  per  kwh. 
1.67  cents  per  kwh. 
2.08  cents  per  kwh. 

2.50  cents  per  kwh. 
2 92  cents  per  kwh. 
3.33  cents  per  kwh.- 
3.75  cents  per  kwh. 
4.17  cents  per  kwh. 


Based  upon  this  estimate  of  Mr.  Powell,  the  electric  cooking  in 
Portland  would  require  a price  of  1.67  cents  per  kwh.  in  order  to  com- 
pete with  our  $1.00  gas.  Applying  this  rate  to  the  average  apartment 
house  consumption  for  a family  of  five,  as  shown  by  tables  III,  IV,  V 
and  VI,  would  result  in  a cost  of  $2.59  per  month  instead  of  $4.65  as 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


at  present  rates.  This  price  probably  represents  reasonably  well  the 
average  cost  of  gas  for  a family  of  five  at  Portland  rates,  and  tends  to 
corroborate  Mr.  Powell’s  estimate  for  the  usual  method  of  application  of 
electrical  cooking. 

Actual  Costs  in  Portland,  1915 

The  sale  of  electric  ranges  in  Portland  was  not  actually  pushed  until 
the  year  1915.  A considerable  number  of  ranges  were  in  service 
throughout  the  year,  mostly  the  older  styles,  but  most  of  those  in  use 
were  installed  during  the  year  1915.  Therefore,  when  a length  of 
record  less  than  twelve  months  is  given,  the  period  included  is  the  last 
months  of  the  year.  In  the  following  tables  are  given  the  monthly  con- 
sumptions in  kwh’s  of  all  ranges  served  by  the  P.  R.  L.  & P.  Co.  during 
1915.  Each  table  refers  to  one  make  of  range  but  the  names  of  the 
makers  are  omitted.  The  individual  ranges  are  numbered  instead  of 
giving  the  name  of  the  consumers. 


TABLE  VIII 

Showing  Monthly  Consumption  in  Kwh’s  of  “A”  Ranges,  Portland,  1915 


Owner 

Months  in 
Service 

Average 
Kwh.  per 
Month 

Average  bill 
per  Kwh. 
at  3c 

1 

2 

382 

$11.46 

2 

4 

120 

3.60 

3 

1 

84 

2.52 

4 

5 

253 

7.59 

5 

4 

102 

3.06 

6 

2 

203 

6.09 

7 

5 

146 

4.38 

8 

4 

92 

2.76 

9 

4 

155 

4.65 

10 

3 

81 

2.43 

11 

3 

47 

1.41 

12 

12 

52 

1.56 

Owner 

Months  in 
Service 

Average 
Kwh.  per 

Average  bill 
at  3c 

Month 

per  Kwh. 

13 

6 

76 

$ 2.28 

14 

7 

198 

5.94 

15 

4 

72 

2.16 

16 

4 

364 

10.92 

17 

5 

145 

4.35 

18 

11 

62 

1.86 

19 

2 

283 

8.49 

20 

3 

280 

8.40 

21 

1 

205 

6.15 

22 

3 

118 

3.54 

23 

5 v 

77 

2.31 

TABLE  IX 

Showing  Monthly  Consumption  in  Kwh’s  of  “B”  Ranges,  Portland,  1915 


Owner 

Months  in 
Service 

Average 
Kwh.  per 

Average  bill 
at  3c 

Month 

per  Kwh. 

1 

10 

67 

$ 2.01 

2 

12 

166 

4.98 

3 

4 

46 

1.38 

4 

12 

38 

1.14 

5 

12 

119 

3.57 

6 

12 

31 

1.00 

7 

12 

182 

5.46 

Owner 

Months  in 
Service 

Average 

Kwh.  per 

Month 

Average  bill 
at  3c 

per  Kwh. 

8 

12 

100 

$ 3.00 

9 

12 

217 

6.51 

10 

12 

96 

2.88 

11 

1 

345 

10.35 

12 

12 

161 

4.83 

13 

10 

99 

2:97 

14 

6 

66 

1.98 

TABLE  X 

Showing  Monthly  Consumption  in  Kwh’s  of  “C”  Ranges,  Portland,  1915 


Owner 

Months  in 
Service 

Average 
Kwh.  per 

Average  bill 
at  3c 

Month 

per  Kwh. 

1 

2 

223 

$ 6.69 

2 

2' 

118 

3.54 

3 

1 

141 

4.23 

4 

1 

182 

5.46 

5 

2 

77 

2.31 

Owner 

Months  in 
Service 

Average 
Kwh.  per 

Average  bill 
at  3c 

Month 

per  Kwh. 

6 

1 

106 

$ 3.18 

7 

3 

133 

3.99 

8 

12 

68 

2.04 

9 

7 

44 

1.32 

10 

12 

106 

3.18 

PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


TABLE  XI 


Showing  Monthly  Consumption  in  Kwh’s  of  “D”  Ranges,  Portland,  1915 


Owner 

Months  in 
Service 

Average 

Kwh.  per 

Month 

Average  bin 
at  3c 
per  Kwh. 

Owner 

Months  in 
Service 

Average 
Kwh.  per 
Month 

Average  btU 
at  3c 
per  Kwh. 

1 

12 

21 

$ 1.00 

21 

7 

49 

$ 1.47 

2 

12 

50 

1.50 

22 

12 

33 

1.00 

3 

4 

103 

3.09 

23 

12 

170 

5.10 

4 

8 

28 

1.00 

24 

2 

43 

1.29 

5 

12 

86 

2.58 

25 

12 

107 

3.21 

6 

5 

42 

1.26 

26 

12 

25 

1.00 

7 

10 

28 

1.00 

27 

11 

56 

1.68 

8 

3 

73 

2.19 

28 

4 

80 

2.40 

9 

7 

24 

1.00 

29 

9 

62 

1.86 

10 

1 

121 

„ 3.63 

30 

6 

33 

1.00 

11 

11 

40 

1.20 

31 

9 

14 

1.00 

12 

3 

109 

3.18 

32 

9 

107 

3.21 

13 

10 

43 

1.29 

33 

12 

80 

2.40 

14 

8 

54 

1.62 

34 

12 

51 

1.53 

15 

10 

69 

2.07 

35 

12 

'53 

1.59 

16 

12 

57 

1.71 

36 

5 

65 

1.95 

17 

6 

26 

1.00 

37 

11 

68 

2.04 

18 

11 

124 

3.72 

38 

12 

165 

4.95 

19 

12 

68 

2.04 

39 

11 

41 

1.23 

20 

12 

17 

1.00 

TABLE*  XII 


Showing  Monthly  Consumption  in  Kwh’s  of  “E”  Ranges.  Portland,  1915 


Owner 

Months  in 

Average  Kwh. 

Average  Bill  at 

Service 

per  Month 

3c  per  Kwh. 

1 

12  

153  

$ 4.59 

TABLE  XIII 


Showing  Monthly  Consumption  in  Kwh’s  of  “F”  Ranges,  Portland,  1915 


Owner 

1 

Months  in 

Service 

3 

Average  Kwh. 
per  Month 
89  .... 

Average  Bill  at 
3c  per  Kwh. 
$ 2.67 

TABLE  XIV 

Summary  of  Range  Data  Shown  in 
to  December, 

Tables  VIII  to 
1915,  Inclusive 

XIII,  January, 

1915, 

MANUFACTURER 

“A” 

“B” 

“C” 

“D” 

“E” : 

“F” 

Number  of 
Ranges 
in  Use 

23 

14 

10 

39 

1 

1 

Used  in  1915 
Total  Months 

123 

139 

43 

351 

12 

3 

Average  Monthly 
Consumption 
in  Kwh. 

114 

98 

94 

63 

154 

89 

Average 

Monthly 

Bill 

$3.42 

2.94 

2.82 

1.89 

4.62 

2.67 

Totals 

Weighted  average  ... .. 

88 

671 

83  Kwh. 

$2.49 

A striking  feature  of  the  above  tables  is  the  wide  variation  in  the 
monthly  consumptions  of  the  individual  consumers.  This  may  be 
because  of  several  things  such  as  differences  in  economical  use,  size  of 
families,  the  amount  of  food  purchased  at  delicatessen  stores  already 
cooked,  and  perhaps  in  some  cases  the  amount  of  cooking  done  by  other 
means  than  electrical.  These  facts  are  not  all  available  but  from  the 
conditions  so  far  as  known  it  is  believed  the  average  consumption  here 
shown  is  indicative  of  a cost  which  can  be  realized  for  exclusive  electrical 
cooking  by  the  exercise  of  reasonable  economy  in  operation. 

In  Table  XV  are  shown  the  monthly  bills  for  the  existing  record  of 
only  three  months,  of  one  apartment  house  installation  in  Portland 
where  both  electric  lights  and  electrical  cooking  are  included  in  the 


54 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


same  bill.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  average  monthly  bill  has  been 
$3.45,  the  same  being  about  $1.00  higher  than  the  average  bill  from 
Table  XIV  for  all  residence  range  installations  served  by  this  company. 
This  is  no  doubt  accounted  for  by  the  lighting  consumption  included  in 
the  bill. 


TABLE  XV 

Combined  Light  and  Range  Bills  for  an  Apartment  House  Installation 

in  Portland 


Oct.  1 

to  Nov.  It 

Nov. 

it  to  Dec.  It 

Dec. 

It  to  Jan.  6 

Kwh. 

Bill 

Kwh. 

Bill 

Kwh. 

Bill 

249 

$ 8.07 

157 

$ 5.3f 

114 

$ 4.02 

79 

2.97 

181 

6.03 

194 

6.42 

140 

4.80 

185 

6.15 

48 

2.04 

5 

20 

1.20 

20 

1.20 

130 

4.50 

119 

4.17 

141 

4.83 

166 

5.58 

213 

6.99 

210 

6.90 

112  • 

3.96 

101 

3.63 

56 

2.28 

111 

3.93 

90 

3.30 

93 

3.39 

77 

2.91 

74 

2.82 

50 

2.10 

86 

3.18 

71 

2.73 

46 

1.98 

96 

3.48 

147 

5.01 

94 

3.42 

0 

1 

8 

131 

4.53 

118 

4.14 

139 

4.77 

0 

8 

144 

4.92 

8 . 

90 

3.30 

15 

1.00 

77 

2.91 

72 

2.76 

105 

3.75 

49 

2.07 

58 

2.34 

46 

1.98 

121 

4.23 

142 

4.86 

39 

1.77 

103 

3.69 

101 

3.6.3 

92 

3.36 

85 

3.15 

78 

2.94 

63 

2.39 

8 

143 

4.89 

134 

4.62 

16 

1.00 

164 

5.52 

180 

6.00 

18 

1.10 

128 

4.44 

148 

5.04 

73 

2.79 

57 

2.31 

72 

2.76 

86 

3.18 

87 

3.21 

84 

3.12 

0 

44 

1.86 

78 

2.94 

0 

25 

1.35 

100 

3.60 

2 

80 

3.00 

88 

3.24 

130 

4.50 

107 

3.81 

119 

4.17 

166 

5.58 

146 

4.98 

175 

5.85 

37 

1.71 

1 

1 

0 

1 

21 

1.23 

23 

1.29 

82 

3.06 

92 

3.36 

145 

4.95 

156 

5.28 

170 

5.70 

0 

0 

0 

22 

1.26 

30 

1.50 

3 

89 

3.27 

71 

2.75 

90 

3.30 

53 

2.19 

17 

1.04 

53 

2.19 

0 

0 

0 

115 

4.05 

76 

2.88 

113 

3.99 

1 

74 

2.82 

181 

6.03 

15 

1.00 

128 

4.44 

134 

4.62 

102 

3.66 

79 

2.97 

96 

3.48 

35 

1.65 

153 

5.19 

173 

5.79 

65 

2.55 

53 

2.19 

83 

3.09 

82 

3.06 

76 

2.88 

97 

3.51 

58 

2.34 

39 

1.77 

26 

1.38 

69 

2.61 

54 

2.22 

57 

2.31 

187 

6.14 

139 

4.77 

111 

3.93 

9* 

3.42 

61 

2.43 

69 

2.67 

131 

4.53 

126 

4.38 

160 

5.40 

72 

2.72 

79 

2.97 

103 

3.69 

19 

1.15 

38 

1.74 

38 

1.74 

599 

400 

360 

1,023 

1,357 

1,502 

254 

272 

284 

5,514 

$135.66 

6,669 

$163.94 

6,912 

$171.27 

PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


55 


Distinctive  Attributes  of  Electrical  Cooking 

It  is  quite  impossible  to  offer  any  marked  innovation  and  secure  its 
adoption  by  the  public.  The  only  types  of  electric  heating  and  cooking 
utensils  which  could  have  been  sold  initially  were  the  toasters,  flat- 
irons and  others  which  could  be  tried  by  the  consumer  at  small  first 
cost.  Even  though  the  range  might  have  been  perfected  at  that  time 
it  would  not  have  been  sold;  it  was  too  different  from  familiar  equip- 
ment. Hence  the  development  of  the  electric  range  has  been  compelled 
to  accommodate  itself  to  that  characteristic  of  human  nature,  its 
“inertia,”  which  resists  accommodation  to  anything  radically  new  in 
principle  or  method  of  application.  Thus,  the  past  and,  to  a lesser 
extent,  the  present  tendency  in  the  development  of  electric  ranges  is  ta 
substitute  for  the  gas-burner  an  electric  “hot-plate,”  leaving  the  general 
method  of  application  little  changed.  The  condition  might  be  likened 
to  the  history  of  the  automobile  in  which  the  first  stage  was  to  install  a 
gas  engine  in  a horse-drawn  vehicle  with  little  more  change  than  that 
necessary  to  support  the  engine,  transmit  the  power  and  steer  the 
vehicle.  The  present  motor  car  hardly  would  be  taken  as  its 
descendant. 

The  present  electric  ranges  are  not  adapted  to  taking  advantage  to 
the  full  extent  of  the  great  inherent  possibilities  of  economy  in  the 
application  of  electric  heat  for  cooking  possessed  by  no  other  source  of 
heat.  Designers,  no  doubt,  recognize  this  fact  but  until  the  purchasing 
public  grasps  these  possibilities  and  applies  the  distinctive  attributes 
of  electrical  service  more  generally  than  now,  any  comparison  of  the 
cost  of  electrical  with  other  cooking  is  without  important  significance. 
It  is  a case  of  comparing  new  equipment  with  equipment  which  has 
undergone  many  years  of  development.  The  attributes  to  which  I refer 
are: 


Number  apartments  occupied 

Average  kwh.  per  occupied  apartment.... 

Average  bill  per  occupied  apartment 

Maximum  bill  for  occupied  apartment 
Minimum  bill  for  occupied  apartment.. 


Oct.  1 to 

Nov.  k to 

Dec.  k 

Nov.  k 

Dec.  Jf 

Jan.  6 

41 

47 

48 

....  90 

99 

100 

$3.31 

$3.47 

$3.56 

8.07 

6.99 

6.90 

1.00 

1.04 

1.00 

1.  Electric  heating  can  be  applied  in  an  air-tight  and  heat  insulated  chamber. 


2.  It  can  be  so  distributed  as  to  be  of  equal  intensity  over  the  entire  inside 
surface  of  the  chamber. 


3.  Electric  heat  can  be  regulated  so  that  when  the  same  switches  are  turned 
the  same  current  always  will  be  supplied,  the  same  oven  heat  obtained  and  the 
same  time  be  required  for  the  baking  or  cooking  process. 


In  the  quotation  from  Mr.  Powell,  which  appears  previously  in  this 
chapter,  the  statement  is  made  that  “electricity  is  used  for  heating  and 
cooking  purposes  at  an  average  efficiency  of  seventy-five  per  cent.”  If 
this  were  true  of  electrical  cooking,  there  would  be  little  room  for 
improvement,  as  no  efficiency  can  be  greater  than  100  per  cent.  Let  us 
see  how  well  the  efficiency  of  seventy-five  per  cent,  is  maintained  in 
boiling  water  on  the  regular  hot  plates  of  a range.  Some  recent  tests  by 
a local  electric  service  company  showed  the  following  results  for  several 
makes  of  ranges  all  reduced  to  the  same  rate  of  consumption,  1,000 
watts: 


56 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


TIME  TO  BOIL 


EFFICIENCY 


Fastest 

Range 

Slowest 

Range 

Average 

Highest 

Lowest  Average 

11  min. 

14  min. 

12  min. 

30 

18 

23 

.19  min. 

22  min. 

20  min. 

41 

34 

37 

32  min. 

40  min. 

37  min. 

45 

38 

41 

Average  results  of  range  tests  when  boiling  water.  Boiling  water  on  top  units. 


The  two  following  tests  were  made  in  a tea  kettle  instead  of  open 
pans  as  above  and  are  reported  by  the  electric  range  committee  of  the 
Northwest  Electric  Light  and  Power  Association: 


TEST  No.  1 

Two  quarts  water  in  nickel-plated  tea  kettle. 

Nine  tests  on  four  makes  of  stoves. 

Discs  all  started  cold. 

Boiling  point  reached  202  degrees  F. 

Average  watts  applied,  1,070. 

Average  interval  of  time  to  boil,  22.1  minutes. 

Average  kwh.,  0.339. 

A-^ercige  cost  at  3c,  1.20c. 

Average  time  of  boiling  after  current  was  shut  off,  seven  minutes. 

TEST  No.  2 

Four  quarts  of  water  in  nickel-plated  tea  kettle. 

Seven  tests  on  five  makes  of  stoves. 

Discs  all  started  cold. 

Average  watts  applied,  1,012. 

Average  interval  of  time  to  boil,  37.6  minutes. 

Average  kwh.  consumed,  0.621. 

Average  cost  at  3c,  1.863c. 

Average  time  of  boiling  after  current  was  shut  off,  seven  minutes. 

Unfortunately,  the  initial  temperature  of  the  water  is  not  given. 
If  it  be  taken  as  fiftjrj-two  degrees  F.,  then  the  approximate  efficiencies 
would  be  fifty-two  per  cent,  for  Test  No.  1 and  fifty-seven  per  cent,  for 
Test  No.  2,  both  higher  than  those  in  the  open  pans,  as  should  be 
expected.  It  is  then  evident  that  the  efficiency  of  boiling  on  top  of 
the  range  in  an  open  stew  kettle  is  not  likely  to  equal  forty  or  forty-five 
per  cent.,  and  in  a tea  kettle  perhaps  sixty  per  cent. 

Now,  it  is  not  the  inefficient  application  of  the  electric  heat  which 
causes  this  low  efficiency;  in  a properly  designed  electric  hot-plate 
there  is  almost  no  escape  for  the  heat  except  into  the  vessel  to  be 
heated.  The  loss  really  occurs  because  the  whole  upper  surface  of  this 
kettle  is  exposed  to  the  air  and  a part  of  the  heat  thus  goes  from  the 
electric  heater  through  the  water  and  the  walls  of  the  tea  kettle 
directly  into  the  surrounding  air  and  is  lost. 

Here  is  an  opportunity  to  apply  to  good  advantage  the  first  named 
attribute  of  electric  heating,  namely,  that  of  heating  in  a closed  and 
insulated  chamber.  When  this  is  done,  it  is  quite  probable  that  the 
difference  in  cost  of  $1.00  gas  and  three-cent  electricity,  as  shown  by 
Powell  elsewhere  in  this  chapter,  will  have  been  nearly,  if  not  com- 
pletely, eliminated. 

In  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  the  ultimate  electric  range  will  have 
few,  if  any,  “hot-plates”  on  the  top  but  will  comprise  a series  of 
depressed  chambers,  or  “compartments,”  similar  to  the  “cookers”  now 
furnished  in  part  on  the  better  ranges,  with  insulated  walls  and  insu- 
lated cover.  The  cooking  dishes  will  consist  of  a set  of  pots  which  will 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


r>7 


be  set  down  into  the*e  chambers,  to  be  subsequently  covered  by  the 
thick  insulated  cover  having  only  a small  vent  for  the  escape  of  steam. 
These  chambers  have  all  the  properties  of  the  so-called  “fireless 
cookers,”  in  which  slow  cooking  will  continue  for  a long  period  after 
closing  off  the  supply  of  heat;. they  have  the  further  advantage  that  a 
small  supply  of  electricity  can  be  kept  flowing  so  that  the  food  will 
continue  to  cook  rapidly  instead  of  gradually  cooling  as  in  the  real 
fireless  cooker.  That  the  energy  consumption  in  these  cookers  is  far 
less  than  in  the  surface  heaters  is  certain  but  tests  are  not  at  hand. 

Another  lesson  which  must  be  learned  by  the  range-user  cook  is  to 
turn  off  the  electric  heat  before  the  cooking  is  complete.  Thus,  in  the 
tests  previously  shown  it  is  stated  that  the  water  boiled  in  each  case  for 
seven  minutes  after  turning  off  the  heat.  This  is  one-third  of  the 
total  time  required  in  Test  No.  1 to  bring  the  water  to  a boil,  and  the 
improvement  in  efficiency  in  this  case  would  here  be  very  great. 

The  second  attribute,  that  of  even  distribution  of  the  heat,  is  of 
great  importance.  The  housewife  well  knows  that  with  a concentrated) 
flame  under  a boiling  pot  of  thick  food  the  most  rapid  cooking  occurs 
near  the  flame  and  in  the  center  of  the  pot  where  the  steam  bubbles 
chiefly  rise,  while  the  surface  is  so  cooled  by  the  air  as  to  prevent  it 
from  cooking  properly.  This  necessitates  continual  stirring  to  keep 
the  outer  surface  cooking  as  rapidly  and  to  keep  the  bottom  from  burn- 
ing. Now,  in  the  insulated  compartment  of  a modern  electric  range 
the  heat  cannot  escape;  the  whole  compartment  assumes  practically  the 
same  temperature  whether  the  heating  unit  is  equally  distributed  about 
the  inside  surface  or  not.  This  eliminates  burned  food  (unless  all  the 
water  evaporates),  also  the  necessity  of  stirring  and  the  danger  of 
unevenly  cooked  foods,  as  when,  in  boiling  potatoes,  some  will  nearly 
always  become  done  before  others  in  the  same  pot.  Bread  in  the  electric 
oven  bakes  evenly  on  all  sides  of  the  loaf.  It  is  also  claimed  that  meat 
shrinks  less  in  the  closed  compartments  and  ovens  of  electric  ranges 
than  in  ovens  where  a circulation  of  air  or  burned  gases  through  the 
oven  tends  to  carry  off  the  volatile  elements  of  the  food. 

The  third  important  attribute  of  electrical  cooking  is  the  ease  of 
obtaining  a definite  cooking  or  baking  temperature  so  that  baking 
bread,  or  any  other  cooking  process,  will  always  require  the  same 
length  of  time.  The  value  of  this  feature  scarcely  can  be  estimated; 
it  implies  no  burned  food,  no  undercooked  food,  no  need  of  opening 
and  cooling  the  oven  every  few  minutes  to  see  how  the  bread  is  baking, 
and  no  worrying  on  the  part  of  the  cook  in  trying  to  watch  several 
things  at  once.  She  merely  sets  the  automatic  timer  for  the  baking 
period  which  she  has  found  correct  by  experience,  and  sets  the  thermo- 
stat for  the  baking  temperature  she  wants  to  use,  turns  the  switch  to 
start  the  heat  and  then  dismisses  the  matter  entirely  from  her  mind 
while  she  goes  on  with  some  other  work.  The  better  makes  of  ranges 
all  comprise  these  features  of  the  thermostat  control  which  turns  off 
the  heat  if  the  oven  becomes  too  hot,  an<J  turns  it  off  completely  by  a 
clock  mechanism  at  the  time  desired,  when  the  operation  is  completed, 
and  also  starts  the  range  in  the  morning  so  that  the  breakfast  may  be 
cooking  wThile  one  is  dressing.  These  features  make  it  possible  to  reduce 


58 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


cooking  to  an  exact  fccience,  so  that  uniformly  good  results  may  be 
secured  with  definite  directions  and  with  minimum  knowledge  and 
experience. 

To  be  sure,  the  range  equipped  with  these  improvements  costs  more 
than  the  range  which  simply  substitutes  an  electric  heating  unit  for  a 
gas  burner,  but  without  it  you  are  not  getting  the  benefit  of  electric 
service.  Without  these  improvements  electric  servcie  has  little  if  any 
advantage  except  sanitation;  and  unless  nearly  as  cheap,  its  use  would 
not  be  warranted.  Plowever,  the  special  features  described  are  proba- 
bly economical  even  at  the  increased  cost.  If  your  money  is  worth  six 
per  cent,  and  the  depreciatioh  of  your  equipment  is  twelve  per  cent., 
then  you  should  need  to  save  only  seventy-five  cents  per  month  on  your 
electric  bill  in  order  to  save  the  interest  and  depreciation  on  a $50 
greater  cost  of  your  range.  Let  us  see  what  the  prospects  are  for 
making  this  saving  by  using  the  compartment  cookers  instead  of  the 
heating  elements  on  top  of  the  stove.  Assuming  the  efficiency  of  the 
hot-plates  for  average  purposes,  as  shown  elsewhere  in  this  chapter,  to 
be  about  thirty-five  per  cent.,  and  the  average  bill  as  shown  by  Table 
XIV  to  be  $2.5  0,  then  it  is  only  necessary  for  the  closed  compartments 
to  yield  an  efficiency  of  fifty  per  cent,  in  order  to  save  the  required 
seventy-five  cents  per  month.  It  is  very  probable  that  the  improvement 
is  equal  to  this  amount,  or  even  more.  In  Table  XI  the  “D”  ranges  are 
of  an  old  type  in  which  the  hot  plates  on  the  top  are  so  slow  in  speed 
that  the  owners  are  said  to  have  been  discouraged,  fortunately,  from 
using  them,  but  prefer  instead  the  closed  compartments.*  The  differ- 
ence in  the  average  monthly  bill  between  this  range  and  the  next  most 
economical  is  more  than  seventy-five  cents  in  all  cases  and  in  most  cases 
is  much  greater. 

Present  practice  in  the  design  of  ranges  is  to  provide  the  cooking 
compartments  with  only  a small  heating  element  intended  to  continue 
the  cooking  process  after  first  bringing  the  food  up  to  a boil  on  the 
more  rapid  surface  hot-plates  which,  in  turn,  are  slower  than  gas  flames* 
and  coal  or  wood  ranges.  It  would  seem  that  one  of  the  most  serious 
present  objections  to  electrical  cooking,  its  slowness  on  the  surface 
units,  could  be  eliminated  by  providing  the  closed  compartments  with  a 
larger  heating  element  and  starting  the  boiling  process  in  them,  instead 
of  on  top  of  the  range,  afterward  so  reducing  the  heat  automatically  as 
to  continue  merely  the  boiling  process.  This  would  require  the  use  of 
an  automatic  switch  or  a thermostat,  as,  otherwise,  should  the  reduction 
in  heat  be  forgotten  by  the  cook  and  the  food  be  allowed  to  “burn  dry” 
the  compartment  might  be  ruined  by  the  intense  heat  which  would 
result. 


* Electrical  Review  and  Western  Electrician,  l-23-’15. 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


59 


FIRST  COST  OF  ELECTRICAL  EQUIPMENT 

Most  electric  utensils  are  considerably  more  costly  than  fuel  utensils. 
They  are  undoubtedly  more  expensive  to  manufacture  but  this  does  not 
explain  the  reason  completely.  In  some  cases  the  excessive  first  cost 
results  from  the  fact  that  they  are  new  and  patented,  and  not  affected 
by  competition.  In  such  cases  competition  is  likely  to  arise  at  any 
time  and  patents  will  eventually  expire. 

Another  reason  for  high  cost  is  the  fact  that  most  electric  utensils 
are  made  of  highly  ornamental  design  and  finish,  intended  for  use  on 
the  dining  table.  The  use  of  these  on  the  table  is  often  a great  con- 
venience and  an  economy  of  time;  but  many  do  not  or  cannot  afford  to 
recognize  the  value  of  these  qualities.  It  would  seem  probable  that  a 
much  greater  demand  would  be  found  to  exist  if  the  makers  would  also 
provide  a line  of  utensils  of  high  grade  as  regards  the  heating  element, 
but  less  pretentious  in  other  particulars. 

The  experimental  work  which  has  been  necessary  to  evolve  successful 
utensils  for  all  purposes  has  been  very  expensive.  Likewise  the  expense 
of  sales  organizations  and  advertising  to  interest  and  educate  the 
people  in  using  them  is  immense  and  probably  greater  than  any  other 
one  factor  in  causing  the  high  cost.  The  purchaser  must  pay  liberally 
for  the  time  and  expense  of  the  agents  and  their  literature  and  advert 
tising,  as  well  as  for  the  cost  of  developing  and  perfecting  the  utensil! 
If  it  were  not  for  the  inertia  of  human  nature  this  advertising  cost 
would  be  eliminated.  When  the  electric  range  and  other  items  of 
equipment  become  so  well  known  and  appreciated  that  the  publid 
demand  them,  the  cost  without  doubt  can  be  considerably  reduced. 
This  expense  is  borne  largely  by  those  who  purchase  during  the  first 
few  years,  until  the  maker  is  reimbursed  for  the  immense  expense  of 
developing  and  advertising  his  product.  Thus,  in  the  case  of  the  tung- 
sten light,  the  original  price  for  forty-watt  lamps  was  $1.50,  whereas* 
the  price  is  now  only  thirty  cents;  the  electric  flat-iron  began  at  $7.50 
and  is  now  only  $3.50  or  less.  Such  great  reductions  in  price  are  not 
to  be  generally  expected  hereafter,  but  in  special  cases  a great  reduction 
may  be  anticipated  and,  indeed,  must  take  place  to  stimulate  their  use. 

The  approximate  cost  and  energy  consumption  of  some  of  the  most 
important  utensils  is  given  below,  although  considerable  variation  may 
be  expected  for  different  sizes,  makes  and  types: 


Flat-iron,  550  watts 

Warming  pads,  20-75  watts 

“Hot-plates”  or  stoves,  400-800  watts 

Coffee  percolator,  550  watts 

Toaster,  550  watts : 

Sewing  machine  motor,  40  watts 

Vacuum  cleaners,  150-190  watts 

Kitchen  ranges,  simple  types 

Kitchen  ranges  with  modern  features,  generally  including  about  as 
follows:  250-500-1,000  watt  hot  plates,  500-1,000  watt  oven, 
1,000  watt  broiler 


$ 3.00-$  4.00 

4.50-  7.25 

3.50-  7.00 

8.00-  12.00 
3.50-  5.00 

15.00  upward 
27.50  upward 
25.00-  60.00 


60.00-  150.00 


CONCLUSIONS 

Under  rates  of  service  now  prevailing,  the  foregoing  discussion  indi- 
cates that  the  heating  of  buildings  is  seldom,  if  ever,  economical  as 
compared  with  other  sources  of  heat  and,  indeed,  that  its  cost  is  usually 


GO 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


too  high  to  warrant  its  adoption  even  when  its  obvious  advantages  of 
convenience  and  sanitation  are  given  due  weight.  Exceptions  were 
found  to  this  statement  in  irrigation  districts  where  the  heating  season 
is  an  off-peak  season,  and  means  were  also  suggested  by  which  a con- 
siderable reduction  in  cost  could  be  introduced  in  electric  heating  by 
the  principle  of  rotation  of  service  between  the  various  rooms  which  do 
not  need  to  be  heated  simultaneously,  and  also  by  the  use  of  furnace, 
fireplace  or  stove  as  auxiliary  during  extremely  cold  weather,  to  avoid 
the  installation  and  therefore  the  further  cost  of  a sufficient  electric 
radiation  to  maintain  living  temperature  under  extreme  conditions. 

In  regard  to  electrical  cooking,  it  can  be  stated  that  many  small 
heating  and  cooking  utensils,  such  as  flat-irons  and  toasters,  have 
gained  great  popularity  even  when  rates  were  high,  as  their  obvious 
advantages  in  convenience  outweigh  purely  economical  considerations. 
Under  rates  existing  in  Portland,  their  cost  of  operation  is  probably 
little,  if  any,  in  excess  of  the  cost  from  other  sources  of  heat. 

The  proposition  of  exclusive  electrical  cooking,  as  generally  applied, 
is  not  as  cheap  as  cooking  by  gas  but  the  margin  of  difference  is  not 
great.  It  is  believed  that  this  margin  can  be  eliminated  almost,  if  not 
entirely,  by  taking  advantage  of  economy  in  electrical  energy  consump- 
tion, made  possible  by  the  use  of  the  closed  compartments  instead  of 
surface  heating  units  for  nearly,  if  not  all  purposes  in  the  electric  range. 
The  accomplishment  of  this  purpose  involves  the  education  of  the  house- 
wife to  sefe  the  advantage  and  economy  to  be  gained  thereby,  and  as 
ranges  must  be  built  to  suit  the  purchaser,  they  will  be  designed  to 
utilize  this  principle  of  closed  cooking  just  as  fast  as  the  public  becomes 
educated  to  use  this  principle.  This  principle  will  further  tend  to  elim- 
inate one  present  disadvantage  of  electrical  cooking,  namely,  its 
somewhat  slow  speed  on  the  surface  heating  unit. 

Several  small  power  appliances  such  as  ventilating  fans,  vacuum 
cleaners,  etc.,  for  the  home  are  useful  and  convenient  beyond  all  pro- 
portion to  their  cost,  and  their  almost  universal  adoption  is  inevitable. 

The  initial  cost  of  electrical  equipment  now  retards  its  adoption. 
As  the  demand  for  this  equipment  increases,  production  in  much  larger 
quantities  to  some  extent  result  in  its  accompanying  cheaper  cost  of 
production.  In  addition,  as  the  public  becomes  better  acquainted  with 
such  equipment  and  absorbs  the  output  without  the  expense  of  the 
present  immense  development  and  advertising  campaign,  the  cost  will 
reduce.  Remember  that  the  purchaser  of  any  product  pays  the 
manufacturer  for  convincing  him  of  the  merits  of  his  purchase. 

Probably  the  most  important  point  to  be  borne  in  mind  in  any  dis- 
cussion of  this  subject  is  that  all  conclusions  must  apply  only  to  present 
conditions  and  that  these  conditions  will  change  continually  to  the 
increased  advantage  of  the  electricity  consumer.  Electrical  energy  can 
be  generated  more  cheaply  in  large  quantities  than  in  small,  and 
increased  use  will,  therefore,  mean  decreased  cost  of  production.  Of 
still  greater  importance  is  the  fact  that  increased  use  wrill  very  greatly1 
decrease  the  cost  of  distribution,  which  is  now  the  principal  charge 
against  the  cost  of  service,  rather  than  the  cost  of  generation. 

Thus,  the  Electric  Range  Committee  of  the  Northwest  Electric  Light 
and  Power  Association,  in  its  report  of  September,  1915,  estimates  the 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


61 


average  monthly  bill  for  home  use  throughout  the  region  covered  by 
the  report,  which  includes  389,842  homes,  to  be  $20  per  year  per  home, 
or  $1.67  per  month.  Commenting  upon  this,  the  committee  says  as 
follows: 

Eventually  we  will  secure  average  earnings  of  $60.00  per  year  from  a large 
portion  of  our  residence  customers,  and  this  increase  of  $40.00  per  customer  can 
be  secured  by  an  investment  on  our  part  of  less  than  $70.00  per  customer, 
including  plant,  transmission  and  distribution  system.  Meanwhile  the  operating 
expense  per  customer  has  very  slightly  increased,  especially  so  in  the  case  of 
hydro-electric  plants. 

This  quotation  is  of  great  significance  in  view  of  the  fact  that  this 
association  and  its  committee  are  composed  almost  entirely  of 
commercial  men  actually  engaged  in  the  sale  of  electrical  energy. 

In  other  words,  increasing  the  capital  investment  of  the  companies 
only  $70  is  expected  to  secure  a gross  increase  in  income  of  $40  per 
year,  or  fifty-seven  per  cent,  gross  income  on  the  additional  investment 
required.  It  is  evident  from  this  that  with  commission  regulation  when 
this  increased  consumption  of  electricity  in  the  home  has  been  realized, 
the  price  of  service  must  materially  reduce  the  cost  to  the  consumer. 

The  conclusions  herein  advanced,  therefore,  apply  only  to  the  present 
time.  The  margin  is  now  so  small  that  one  might,  for  this  reason, 
predict  with  reasonable  assurance  that  electric  service  for  most  pur- 
poses, at  least  in  large  centers  of  population,  will  soon  reach  a price 
which  can  compete  with  any  other  method.  Even  in  the  case  of  electric 
cal  heating  of  houses,  one  would  be  unsafe  in  predicting  that  it  would 
remain  for  many  years  uneconomical  in  comparison  with  most  other 
fuel. 

Looked  at  from  the  standpoint  of  the  community  as  a whole,  the 
way  to  make  electrical  service  cheaper  and  more  economical  is  to  use 
it  more  universally.  This  increased  use  still  further  reduces  the  cost, 
which  still  further  increases  and  encourages  the  use,  the  development 
of  the  industry  continually  gaining  in  momentum. 


CHAPTER  III 


Electricity  on  the  Farm 

One  application  of  electricity  which  promises  to  be  of  great  value 
and  importance  both  to  the  electric  service-  companies  and  the  customers, 
is  the  use  of  electricity  in  rural  districts. 

This  field  of  application  has  hardly  more  than  begun  to  develop  in 
the  United  States  as  a whole,  although  in  some  populous  districts  of 
the  eastern  states  and  in  irrigation  districts  of  the  western  states  con- 
siderable progress  has  been  made.  In  some  parts  of  Europe,  especially 
in  Germany,  electrification  of  farming  operations  has  reached  a high 
state  of  development.  Central  stations  are  now  supplying  about  50,000 
to  75,000  rural  customers  in  the  United  States. 

The  farmer  is  one  of  the  greatest  of  all  users  of  power,  but,  on  the 
whole,  he  still  clings  to  such  primitive  methods  as  hand  labor,  horses 
and  mules,  although  more  recently  the  gasoline  engine  has  become  a 
familiar  sight  on  the  farm. 

The  problem  of  labor  is  becoming  a serious  matter  with  the  farmer. 
The  sons  drift  toward  the  cities;  transient  help  is  independent  and  unre- 
liable; permanent  help  requires  pay  and  subsistence  for  seasons  of  the 
year  when  not  needed;  horses  must  be  fed  at  all  times  and  cared  for 
whether  used  or  not;  moreover,  both  horses  and  men  are  limited  in 
hours  of  service  to  ten  or  twelve  hours  per  day.  It  has  been  estimated 
(in  Gillette’s  Hand  Book  of  Cost  Data)  that  the  average  farm  horse 
works  only  eleven  and  one-half  per  cent,  of  the  time,  or  two  and  three- 
quarters  hours  per  day  on  the  average  throughout  the  year.  On  the 
average  farm  the  cost  to  the  farmer  of  feeding  a horse  per  month  when 
working  is  about: 


One-quarter  ton  of  hay  at  $10.00 $2.50 

Fifteen  bushels  of  oats  at  forty  cents 6.00 

Total $8.50 


The  average  cost  throughout  the  year  is  about  $7.00  per  month. 
One  horse  working  eight  hours  per  day  can  accomplish  only  about  two- 
thirds  of  a mechanical  horsepower,  or  two-thirds  times  three-fourths 
equals  one-half  kilowatt.  If  the  horse  works  three  hours  per  day,  or 
ninety  hours  per  month,  on  the  average  throughout  the  year,  then  it 
will  accomplish  forty-five  kwh.  per  month,  which,  at  a monthly  rate 
of  $7.00,  would  cost  to  the  farmer  $7.00  divided  by  forty-five,  or  fifteen 
and  one-half  cents  per  kwh.  These  figures  are,  of  course,  only  rough 
approximations  but  serve  to  gain  a rough  conception  of  the  cost  of 
animal  power.  No  account  is  here  taken  of  the  interest,  depreciation 
and  care  of  horses.  If  these  be  considered,  the  cost  of  animal  power 
will  be  nearly  doubled  and  the  advantage  will  be  strongly  with  the 
motor,  as  the  cost,  care  and  depreciation  of  horses  very  greatly  exceed 
that  of  motors  of  equal  capacities.  In  fact,  a motor  will  run  auto- 
matically on  many  kinds  of  service  and  only  needs  to  be- visited  once  in 
two  or  three  days  to  oil  it. 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


63 


It  is  commonly  assumed  that  it  takes  ten  men  to  exert  one  horse- 
power, or  thirteen  to  exert  one  kilowatt.  If  a man’s  time  is  worth  fif- 
teen cents  per  hour,  his  services  would  thus  cost  about  $2.00  per  kilo- 
watt hour.  It  requires  one  man,  or  a one-eighth  horsepower  motor, 
to  run  a cream  separator.  A one-eighth  horsepower  motor,  at  twelve 
cents  per  kwh.  would  cost  only  one  and  one-eighth  cents  per  hour  to 
operate.  Man  power  is  thus  about  sixteen  times  as  expensive  as  electric 
power  at  twelve  cents  per  kwh.  and  twenty-four  times  as  expensive  as 
eight-cent  electric  power.  A wage  of  fifteen  cents  per  hour  for  a man 
is  about  the  same  as  $2.00  per  kwh.  for  electric  service. 

A windmill  is  unreliable  and  more  expensive  for  the  same  capacity. 
A gasoline  engine  costs  about  twice  as  much  as  a motor;  usually  weighs 
about  two  or  three  times  as  much;  occupies  much  more  floor  space;  is 
noisy,  more  subject  to  trouble;  and  requires  more  skill  to  operate,  and 
has  several  other  less  important  disadvantages.  A motor  does  not  need 
a heavy  foundation.  It  can  be  mounted  on  a timber  frame  and  carried 
from  place  to  place  by  two  men,  like  a stretcher,  or  can  be  drawn  by  a 
horse,  like  a “stone  boat,”  and  is  ready  for  service  in  its  new  location 
as  soon  as  the  belt  is  attached. 

The  above  illustrations  are  given  to  indicate  the  nature  of  the 
problems  which  confront  the  farmer  in  considering  the  introduction  of 
electric  service  on  the  farm,  when  service  is  offered  him  at  a definite 
price.  These  problems  will  be  discussed  in  greater  detail  in  considering 
the  individual  applications  of  electric  service  on  the  farm. 

Lighting  and  Household  Uses 

It  is  unnecessary  to  discuss  electric  lighting  and  other  house  uses  at 
length,  as  they  were  treated  in  the  preceding  chapter  under  “Electricity* 
in  the  Home.” 

It  may  be  said,  however,  that  electrical  lighting  assumes  on  the 
farm  greater  value  than  in  the  city.  This  is  because  its  nearest  competi- 
tor is  the  kerosene  lamp  and  lantern,  while  in  the  city  the  consumer 
has  the  alternative  of  gas  lighting.  A farmer’s  property  does  not  have 
the  protection  of  a trained  city  fire  department;  moreover,  it  is  subject 
to  greater  danger  from  fire  because  of  the  hay  and  other  combustible 
products  stored  in  the  buildings.  Many  fires  have  been  caused  by  kero- 
sene lamps  and  lanterns.  In  this  respect,  electric  lights  are  almost 
invaluable  to  the  farmers. 

In  regard  to  other  household  utensils  as  discussed  in  the  preceding 
chapter,  the  same  general  remarks  apply  except  that  the  cost  of  electrid 
service  is  likely  to  be  higher  than  in  the  city  and  the  economy  of  electric 
service  not,  therefore,  as  marked.  Such  equipment  as  electric  washing 
machines,  wringers,  mangles,  meat  grinders,  coffee  grinders,  sausage 
stuffers,  bread  mixers,  buffers  and  grinders,  however,  assume  far  greater 
importance  in  the  rural  home  than  in  the  city  home. 

Water  Supply  for  House  and  Bam 

In  districts  where  water  must  be  pumped  for  the  kitchen,  and  for 
the  use  of  livestock,  the  electric-driven  pump  is  superior  to  any  other 
source  of  power,  as  the  windmill  or  gasoline  engine,  both  in  cost  and 


64 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


convenience.  It  is  very  easy  and  surprisingly  inexpensive  to  provide  a 
motor-driven  pump  with  automatic  control  operated  by  a float  in  the 
water  tank  so  that  the  motor  will  start  as  soon  as  the  water  has  fallen 
below  a certain  elevation,  and  stop  again  when  the  tank  is  full. 

Pumping  Water  for  Irrigation 

Pumping  water  for  irrigation  is  a use  for  which  the  electric  motor 
has  been  gaining  enormously  in  popularity.  There  are  many  farmers 
who  prefer  the  independence  resulting  from  owning  and  operating  their 
own  irrigation  system  in  preference  to  a water  right  in  a large  ditch 
system.  The  practicability  of  economical  irrigation  by  pumping  depends 
much  upon  the  lift  and  the  water  supply.  If  one  lift  is  twice  as  great  as 
another,  the  cost  of  power  will  be  twice  as  great  or  nearly  unless  on  a 
sliding  scale  contract.  The  initial  cost  of  a pumping  plant  is  usually 
much  less  than  a ditch  water  right,  usually  costing  only  about  $10  per 
acre  for  a plant  lifting  fifty  feet,  whereas  a ditch  right  seldom  costs 
less  than  $40  per  acre,  and  more  generally  about  $60.  However,  the 
cost  of  operation  of  the  pumping  plant  is  greater  because  of  the  cost  of 
electricity  or  gasoline,  but  if  interest  on  the  first  cost  be  considered,  as 
it  always  should  be,  this  item  will  often  be  so  much  greater  for  the 
ditch  right  as  to  more  than  offset  the  extra  cost  of  operating  a pumping 
plant.  In  1909  there  were  said  to  be  500,000  acres  in  the  United  States 
irrigated  by  pumping,  and  consuming  243,000  horsepower.  This 
acreage  has  doubtless  been  almost  doubled  since  the  census. 

The  conditions  attending  proposed  irrigation  installations  are  so 
varied  as  to  make  each  case  a problem  in  itself  to  determine  what 
system  is  to  be  preferred.  The  problems  are  of  such  technical  nature 
as  to  make  it  advisable  to  secure  the  advice  of  a disinterested  expert 
rather  than  to  be  guided  by  the  solicitations  of  either  the  engineers  of 
the  machinery  agent,  the  power  company  or  the  ditch  company,  all  of 
whom  may  be  influenced  by  personal  motives. 

ELECTRICITY  IN  THE  DAIRY 

Cream  Separators 

Cream  separators  should  be  one  of  the  first  devices  to  be  electrified 
when  the  dairy  farmer  secures  electric  service.  Only  a one-eighth  horse- 
power motor  is  usually  required  and  the  cost  of  operation  at  twelve 
cents  per  kwh.  would  be  only  about  one  and  one-eighth  cents  per  hour. 
The  motor  can  be  started  and  the  farmer  can  go  about  other  “chores,” 
leaving  the  separator  to  care  for  itself. 

Milking  Machines 

Milking  machines  have  been  growing  in  popularity  although  they 
apparently  have  not  always  been  successful,  either  for  want  of  intelli- 
gent application  on  the  part  of  the  farmer,  or  the  proper  mood  on  the 
part  of  the  cow,  as  well  as  the  fact  that  considerable  experimental  work 
has  been  required  to  develop  them.  They  are  now  declared  to  give 
excellent  results.  One  person  can  milk  eight  cows  at  the  same  time  with 
the  aid  of  the  machine.  The  cost  of  a three  horsepower  motor,  vacuum 
pump  and  two  milking  machines  is  about  $450,  and  $75  extra  for  each 
extra  machine.  The  power  required  for  milking  each  cow  is  about  0.019 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


65 


kwh.,  which,  at  eight  cents  per  kwh.,  would  cost  about  0.15  cents,  or 
approximately  one-seventh  cent  per  cow.  For  hand  milking,  an  expert 
can  milk  about  ten  cows  per  hour,  and  his  services  at  fifteen  cents  per 
hour  would  thus  be  one  and  one-half  cents  per  cow.  To  the  cost  of 
electricity  for  electric  milking  must  be  added  the  interest  and  depre- 
ciation upon  the  cost  of  the  equipment.  This  should  be  taken  at  about 
sixteen  per  cent.  A three  horsepower  motor  and  pump  will  care  for 
about  ten  milking  machines  which  will  milk  about  110  cows  per  hour, 
but  strangely  enough  a smaller  number  of  machines  does  not  permit 
the  use  of  a smaller  motor  and  pump.  The  amount  of  the  interest  and 
depreciation,  therefore,  depends  very  largely  upon  the  number  of  cows  , 
milked. 

In  electric  milking  contamination  is  reduced  or  prevented  by  first 
cleaning  the  cow  with  the  vacuum  pump  used  for  milking,  and  also 
because  the  milk  does  not  flow  into  an  open  pail  where  it  can  accumulate 
dirt  from  the  cow’s  hide  and  from  the  dirt  of  the  barn  during  milking, 
but  flows  into  a closed  vacuum  pail. 

Refrigeration 

Many  perishable  products  on  the  farm  are  lost  from  a lack  of  cold 
storage  facilities.  It  is  entirely  practicable  for  the  farmer  to  have  a 
small  insulated  room  with  a small  refrigerating  machine  driven  by  an 
automatic  motor,  which  will  always  keep  the  room  at  nearly  the  same 
temperature.  Whether  or  not  the  cost  of  this  plant  is  justified  in  any 
individual  case  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  farmer’s  products,  the 
size  of  his  crops,  reliability  of  the  market,  etc. 

Churns  and  Butter  Workers 

Where  the  dairy  farmer  makes  his  own  butter,  the  need  of  electric 
service  is  dependent  upon  its  relative  economy  and  convenience  as  com- 
pared with  gasoline  engine  or  other  source  of  power.  Where  this  is 
the  case,  the  advantage  will  nearly  always  favor  electric  service.  The 
results  of  several  tests  indicate  that  one  kwh.  of  electric  energy  will 
churn  and  work  about  160  to  170  pounds  of  butter,  which  at  eight 
cents  per  kwh.  for  electric  service  would  amount  to  a cost  of  about 
twenty-one  pounds  of  butter  for  one  cent. 

Other  Dairy  Utensils 

Other  dairy  utensils  which  lend  themselves  to  electric  operation 
include  bottle  washers,  butter  cutting  and  printing  machines,  cream 
testers,  pasteurizers,  etc. 

ELECTRICITY  IN  THE  FARM  SHOP 

Electricity  for  power  purposes  is  nearly  always  economical.  Man 
power  is  very  expensive;  a wage  of  fifteen  cents  per  hour  for  a man  is 
about  equivalent  to  a price  of  $2.00  per  kwh.  for  electricity  of  equal 
power  ability.  A price  of  twelve  cents  per  kwh.  is  therefore  only  about 
one-sixteenth  as  expensive  as  man  power;  which,  even  after  adding  for 
the  interest  and  depreciation  on  the  machinery,  will  not  exceed  about 
one-tenth  or  even  one-eighth  as  much  as  man  power. 


60 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


The  farmer  is  a large  user  of  machinery,  and  all  machinery  needs 
occasional  repair.  He  is  often  far  from  town  where  such  repairs  can 
be  made.  The  result  is  that  the  modern  farmer  must  be  equipped  to  do 
much  of  his  own  repair  work. 

Small  Tools 

The  farm  shop  should  contain  several  small  repair  utensils  such  as 
grindstone,  emery  wheel,  hack  saw,  drill  press,  and  forge  blower,  all  of 
which  could  be  easily  operated  by  belt  from  a line  shaft  driven  by  one 
motor.  None  of  these  require  more  than  about  one-fourth  horsepower 
each.  Wood  saws,  lathes  and  planers  require  some  more  power  and 
could  be  operated  by  individual  motors  or  from  a line  shaft  driven  by  a 
larger  motor  than  in  the  former  case. 

Why  should  not  the  farmer  saw  up  his  cordwood  by  electricity, 
instead  of  by  hand,  into  stove  lengths  for  his  own  use,  and  likewise  that 
which  he  hauls  to  town  for  sale? 


ELECTRICITY  IN  THE  BARN  AND  FIELD 

It  is  here  that  the  largest  power  using  machinery  on  the  farm  is  to 
be  found.  It  is  here  that  the  electric  motor  comes  into  competition 
with  animal  power  and  other  sources  of  mechanical  power.  For  the 
comparatively  large  consumption  of  such  equipment  a lower  price  is 
nearly  always  granted  and  would  probably  not  exceed  five  to  eight 
cents  per  kwh. 

Ensilage  Cutters 

In  one  instance  the  first  cost  is  reported  to  have  been  $575  including 
the  machine  and  a fifteen  horsepower  single-phase  motor.  The  interest 
at  six  per  cent,  and  depreciation  at  ten  per  cent,  would  amount  to  $92 
per  year.  The  machine  cut  ninety  tons  per  day  and  consumed  1.38  kwh. 
per  ton  of  ensilage,  costing  eleven  cents  per  ton,  at  eight  cents  per  kwh. 
Other  recorded  tests  indicate  about  the  same  energy  consumption. 

Com  Shelters 

One  is  reported  to  have  cost:  For  the  machine,  $35;  for  the  one 
horsepower  single-phase  motor,  $75;  total,  $110.  The  fixed  charges 
would  be  fifteen  per  cent.,  or  $16.50  per  year.  It  shelled  twenty- 
six  bushels  per  hour  at  a rate  of  thirty-six  bushels  per  kwh.  In  another 
similar  instance,  the  output  was  twenty-five  bushels  per  kwh.  Two  men 
are  required  for  hand  operation  and  only  one  with  electric  operation. 

Com  Grinders 

Reported  cost  of  machine,  $25;  cost  of  five  horsepower  single-phase 
motor,  $160;  electrical  consumption,  0.433  kwh.  per  bushel  of  shelled 
corn;  fixed  charges  about  sixteen  per  cent.,  or  $29.60  per  year. 

Root  Cutter 

One  is  reported  to  have  a capacity  of  six  tons  of  turnips  per  hour; 
to  cost  $26.30;  and  to  be  operated  by  a two  horsepower  motor  costing 
$86.  It  is  used  fifty-two  hours  per  year,  or  about  one  hour  per  week* 
cutting  300  tons  of  beets  and  turnips  at  a total  cost  of  $35.94,  or  eleven 
and  nine-tenths  cents  per  ton,  including  fixed  charges. 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


67 


FARM  BY-PRODUCTS 

In  Germany  neighboring  farmers  are  often  equipped  with  electri- 
cally driven  plants  for  utilizing  by-products.  Beet  and  potato  tops  are 
dried  and  used  for  fodder,  cider,  starch,  also  frozen  potatoes  are  imme- 
diately converted  into  alcohol.  When  a surplus  of  potatoes  are  pro- 
duced, making  the  price  low,  they  are  peeled,  cut  up  and  dried  for  sup- 
plying future  demands.  There  are  436  plants  in  Germany  for  drying 
potatoes. 

Oat  Crushers 

Cost  of  crusher  and  motor,  $300;  rate  of  crushing,  fifty  bushels  per 
hour;  twenty-two  bushels  crushed  per  kwh. 

Horse  Groomers 

Horse  groomers  are  a vacuum  cleaner  of  a special  type  adapted  for 
this  purpose. 

Hay  Hoists 

Hay  hoists  are  readily  operated  by  an  electric  motor.  In  one 
instance  the  cost  of  the  rigging  was  $105;  ten  horsepower  motor,  $163; 
fixed  charges  (interest  and  depreciation)  at  sixteen  per  cent.  $42.90 
per  year.  A load  of  2,450  pounds  of  hay  was  hoisted  and  placed  in 
thirteen  minutes,  at  a cost  of  two  and  one-half  cents  for  power  (ten 
cents  per  kwh.)  and  ten  cents  for  labor,  in  addition  to  fixed  charges  or 
“overhead”  expenses.  In  another  instance  the  load  is  reported  to  have 
been  completely  handled  in  less  than  five  minutes. 

Electrical  Plowing 

Electrical  plowing  is  considerably  used  in  Germany,  where  it  has 
been  carried  on  for  about  fifteen  years,  and  to  a lesser  extent  in  Italy 
and  other  European  countries.  Two  systems  are  in  use.  One  has 
mounted  on  the  plow  a 100  horsepower  motor  operated  drum  around 
which  a cable  makes  a few  turns  and  then  attaches  to  anchor  wagons  at 
each  end  of  the  field,  these  wagons  being  automatically  moved  the 
required  distance  at  each  reversal.  The  energy  is  derived  from  a two- 
wire  trolley  supported  by  the  wagons.  The  machine  plows  in  both 
directions  by  a reversal  of  the  shares.  In  the  two-motor  system  a 
motor  is  mounted  on  each  anchor  wagon  but  none  on  the  plow.  Each 
system  plows  about  two  acres  per  hour.  The  one-motor  system  costs 
about  $8,000  and  the  two-motor,  $11,000,  and  both  consume  about 
twenty-five  kwh.  per  acre  for  ten-inch  plowing.  In  Italy  the  cost, 
including  fixed  charges,  is  reported  to  be  about  $3.00  per  acre  at  three 
cents  per  kwh.,  as  compared  with  $4.30  per  acre  for  steam  and  $5.30  to 
$5.75  for  horses. 

Electrical  Threshing 

Electrical  threshing  has  developed  in  several  districts.  It  is 
reported  that  in  Iowa*  the  first  cost  of  an  installation  was  $800  for  the 
motor  and  all  electric  equipment,  whereas  the  cost  of  a steam  or  gas 
engine  would  have  been  $1,800  to  $2,500.  It  is  also  stated  that  the 

* Explanation  offered  by  the  electric  company.  . 


68 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


« 

cost  of  electric  power  at  five  cents  per  kwh.  was  at  least  twenty-five 
per  cent,  cheaper  than  steam  or  gasoline.  Electrical  threshing  would 
relieve  the  fire  hazard  and,  by  virtue  of  the  convenient  arc  lighting 
facilities  made  possible,  would  permit  threshing  in  double  shifts. 

Electrical  Trucking 

Electric  driven  auto-trucks  are  steadily  growing  in  popularity  in  the 
cities.  They  are  more  expensive  in  first  cost  than  gasoline  trucks 
because  of  the  high  cost  of  the  storage  batteries.  They  also  require  a 
daily  period  of  rest  while  the  batteries  are  being  charged,  or  else  two 
sets  of  batteries  for  exchanging.  The  period  of  rest  wrould  not  incon- 
venience the  farmer  who  could  have  his  own  charging  plant  to  operate 
at  off-peak  hours  and  thus  improve  his  load  factor.  Because  of  the 
large  initial  investment  and  consequent  high  fixed  charges,  such  equip- 
ment is,  however,  only  economical  where  it  can  be  kept  almost  contin- 
ually in  service  and  so  spread  the  fixed  charges  over  a large  annual 
tonnage  hauled. 

Other  Uses 

Other  uses  are:  Hay  presses,  incubators,  alfalfa  mills,  sheep 
shearers,  hay  balers,  cider  mills,  apple  sorters,  spraying  machines,  apple 
wipers,  etc. 


RURAL  CONSUMPTION  OF  ENERGY 

In  districts  where  irrigation  pumping  or  any  of  the  large  uses  of 
energy,  such  as  plowing  or  threshing,  are  undertaken,  the  average 
energy  consumption  is  of  little  significance.  In  Wisconsin  twenty-three 
central  stations  report  rural  customers  from  one  to  sixty  in  number  and 
averaging  eight.  The  line  voltage  is  usually  6,600  and  investment  of 
the  company  $125  to  $350  per  kw.  of  connected  load.  This  connected 
load  averages  2.79  kw.  per  consumer;  the  kwh.  per  annum  per  conn 
sumer,  446;  the  gross  annual  income,  $41.35  per  customer  (about  ten 
cents  per  kwh.);  income  per  kw.  of  connected  load,  $17.74.  From  the 
size  of  the  average  connected  load,  two  and  seventy-nine  hundredths  kw., 
it  is  probable  that  nearly  all  of  the  small  power  applications  such  as 
cream  separators,  water  pumping,  lighting,  ironing,  and  perhaps  some 
others,  are  electrically  served. 

The  following  table  gives  statistics  of  consumption  in  the  Central 
States: 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


G9 


70 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


The  Farmer’s  Equipment 

The  farmer’s  equipment,  in  addition  to  lighting  in  house  and  barn 
and  surroundings,  should  consist  of  distribution  lines  connecting 
important  farm  buildings;  several  hundred  feet  of  armored  cable  pro- 
vided with  special  contacts  to  be  connected  to  the  line  by  merely 
reaching  up  with  a long  pole  and  hooking  over  the  wires,  this  cable 
being  on  a reel  and  long  enough  to  reach  from  the  nearest  pole  line  to 
any  machine;  a one-eighth  or  one-fourth  horsepower  motor  for  use 
around  the  house;  a one  horsepower  and  a three  or  five  horsepower 
motor  for  use  around  the  farm  buildings. 

An  electric  motor  is  light  in  weight  and,  because  of  the  fact  that  it 
has  no  reciprocating  parts,  it  does  not  require  a heavy  foundation  and 
heavy  anchorage.  The  weights  of  the  above  motor  would  be  about 
100  pounds  for  the  one  horsepower  motor,  180  pounds  for  the  three 
horsepower  and  220  pounds  for  the  five  horsepower  motors.  These 
weights  are  small  enough  to  permit  two  men  to  carry  for  short  distances 
even  the  five  horsepower  motor  on  a small  wooden  frame  built  like  a 
stretcher.  For  longer  distances  or  larger  motors,  the  frame  can  be 
dragged  like  a stoneboat,  and  the  motor  is  ready  to  operate  as  soon  as 
the  belt  or,  preferably,  a flexible  direct  coupling  and  the  electric  cable 
are  attached.  Thus,  although  many  items  of  farm  equipment  have  been 
mentioned,  it  must  be  remembered  that  comparatively  few  motors  are 
required  to  serve  them. 

For  service  where  large  motors  are  Required,  such  as  threshing  or 
ensilage  cutting,  it  would  be  uneconomical  for  each  farmer  to  have  hig 
own  motor,  transformers  and  other  equipment,  as  it  would  be  used  only 
a few  days  or  weeks  per  year.  To  make  the  conduct  of  such  operations 
practicable  by  electricity,  it  will  be  necessary  to  have  some  community 
interest  in  a large  motor  and  necessary  transformers  and  controlling 
devices,  all  mounted  on  a covered  wagon  which  can  be  taken  from  one 
farm  to  another.  By  thus  doing  this  heavy  work  in  rotation,  the  size 
of  main  transmission  lines  and  transformers  can  be  greatly  decreased 
and  probably  cheaper  rates  obtained  from  the  power  company.  Instead 
of  a cooperative  interest,  one  farmer  might  own  the  equipment  and  rent 
it  on  a basis  similar  to  that  now  employed  for  threshing  with  steam 
power. 


RURAL  DISTRIBUTION 

To  the  power  company  the  great  problem  is  to  get  the  electric 
energy  to  the  farmer  at  a cost  which  will  interest  him.  The  farmer 
seldom  realizes  how  serious  this  problem  really  is,  and  how  diligently 
the  companies  are  working  to  solve  it.  Through  long  experience,  cer- 
tain types  of  line  constructions,  transformer  types  and  transmission 
voltages  have  gradually  superseded  others  for  municipal  distribution 
and  have  become  generally  recognized  as  standards.  Thus,  we  have  the 
insulated  wire  made  necessary  by  interference  of  tree  branches  and 
danger  to  pedestrians  in  case  of  a broken  “live  wire.”  This  insulation 
adds  weight  which  requires  shorter  wire  spans.  Frequent  service  wires 
leading  to  the  houses  exert  a lateral  pull  on  the  poles  and  necessi- 
tate closer  pole  spacing  than  otherwise  necessary.  Now,  the  standards 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


71 


pf  line  construction  which  have  been  evolved  for  city  systems,  if  used 
in  rural  districts,  would  make  the  cost  of  service  absolutely  prohibitive 
to  the  farmer. 

The  great  problem  of  rural  service  is  to  cheapen  the  cost  of  the 
transmission  line.  We  know  that  pole  spacing  must  be  increased  and 
that  transformers  and  wires  must  be  cheapened  as  much  as  possible 
without  subjecting  the  line  to  excessive  weakness  during  storms  and  to 
unwarranted  electrical  losses  and  dangers  of  interruption  of  service. 

To  what  limit  these  economies  can  be  carried  can  only  be  learned 
by  the  experience  gained  in  actual  construction  and  operation. 

There  is  a limit  to  the  amount  of  power  used  by  any  customer  below 
which  the  expense  of  protective  apparatus  and  substation  is  not  justified. 
The  development  of  successful  outdoor  substations  for  high  voltages 
has  decreased  this  limit  so  that  a much  smaller  consumer  living  near  a 
high  voltage  or  “high  tension”  line  can  be  served  than  formerly.  Other 
economies  advocated  by  some  are  the  use  of  bare  instead  of  insulated 
wires  because  of  the  smaller  danger  to  life  from  fallen  wires  in  rural 
districts  and  the  possibility  of  avoiding  trees.  Iron  wire  has  also  been 
proposed  and  used  to  some  extent,  both  to  cheapen  the  cost  and  to 
increase  the  strength  and  thereby  permit  the  use  of  longer  spans. 
“Copper-clad”  steel  has  also  been  used. 

The  cheapest  class  of  2,300  volts  rural  distribution  line  construction 
formerly  in  use  costs  about  $7  00  per  mile  if  all  paid  for  by  the  company. 
If  there  is  but  one  consumer  per  mile  the  cost  is  prohibitive  unless  he 
uses  a large  amount  of  power.  Even  if  there  are  four  or  five  consumers 
per  mile  of  line,  the  investment  would  amount  to  nearly  $200  per 
consumer,  probably  more  than  the  cost  of  the  generating  station. 

The  distance  which  must.be  covered  to  locate  and  make  repairs  is 
greater  than  in  a city  and  maintenance  correspondingly  increased.  One 
large  company  in  the  Northwest  will  extend  a line  at  its  own  expense 
one  mile  for  each  fifteen  hprsepower  of  motor  irrigation  load  to  be 
secured.  In  some  cases  the  power  companies  require  the  farmer  to 
build  the  line  where  the  income  will  not  otherwise  warrant  the  invest- 
ment. Sometimes  this  line  is  afterward  paid  for  by  the  company  by 
deducting  a proportion  of  the  monthly  bill  of  the  consumer,  while 
sometimes  the  company  builds  the  line  but  requires  a guarantee  of  a 
definite  amount  of  business  during  the  first  year  to  five  years.  Indi- 
vidual conditions  differ  so  widely  that  no  universal  method  of  financing 
could  here  be  advocated. 


/ 


The  Relation  of  Hydroelectric  Power  Resources  to 
the  Prospective  Industrial  Development  of  Oregon. 

The  various  industries  using  electrical  energy  may  be  divided  into  four 
classes : 

Class  A — Those  industries  which  can  use  electricity  chiefly  for  mechan- 
ical power. 

Class  B — Those  which  require  both  mechanical  power  and  a moderate 
heat. 

Class  C — Those  which  require  a furnace  heat  higher  than  can  be 
produced  by  fuels ; a high  heat  in  the  absence  of  air  or  other  conditions 
which  cannot  be  obtained  by  fuel. 

Class  D — Those  which  require  a chemical  decomposition  or  deposi- 
tion by  electrolytic  action. 

The  conditions  which  determine  what  locality  shall  experience  the  most 
rapid  industrial  development  are,  in  brief : 

( 1 ) Availability  of  needed  raw  materials ; 

(2)  Transportation  facilities  for  raw  materials  and  finished  products; 

(3)  Proximity  to  market  for  manufactured  products; 

(4)  Cost  of  labor; 

(5)  Cost  of  power; 

(6)  Factory  construction  costs,  and  cost  of  factory  sites. 

The  degree  of  relative  importance  attaching  to  the  above  considerations 
varies  greatly  in  respect  to  the  several  classes  of  industries  first  named. 

Class  A. — Industries  Requiring  Chiefly  Mechanical  Power 

The  following  table  shows,  for  many  manufacturing  industries,  the 
horsepower  required  per  $1,000.00  value  of  goods  produced ; also  the  horse- 
power required  per  employe.*  This  table,  Although  based  only  upon  the 
census  statistics,  is  yet  sufficiently  dependable  to  throwT  much  light  upon 
the  choice  of  industries  most  likely  to  succeed  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  assum- 
ing cheaper  wrater  power  to  be  obtainable  here. 


\ 


*David  B.  Rushmore,  General  Electric  Review,  January,  1916. 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


78 


POWER  REQUIRED  FOR  MANUFACTURING,  BASED  ON  1909 
UNITED  STATE'S  CENSUS 


Agricultural  implements  

Automobiles  

Boots  and  shoes  - 

Copper,  tin  and  sheetiron  products  

Cotton  goods  

Electrical  machinery  

Fertilizers  - 

Foundry  and  machine  shops 

Leather  (tanned,  curried  and  finished) 

Printing  and  publishing 

Packing  houses  

Woolen,  worsted  and  felt  goods 

Brick  and  tile  ... 

Cement  

Flour  and  gristmill  products  

Manufactured  ice  

Iron  and  steel  (blast  furnaces) 

Iron  and  steel  (rolling  mills) 

Lumber  and  timber 

Paper  and  wood  pulp 

Copper  smelting  and  refining 

Average  all  industries,  1909 

Average  all  industries,  1904. 


Horsepower 
required  per 
$1,000.00 
production 
0.69 
0.30 
0.19 
0.31 
2.07 
0.72 
0.62 
0.71 
0.45 
0.40 
0.15 
0.83 
3.68 
5.90 
0.97 
7.40 
3.00 
2.13 
2.46 
4.88 
0.42 
0.91 
0.91 


Horsepower 

used 

per  person 
engaged  in 
industry 
1.67 
0.89 
0.45 
0.72 
3.35 
1.50 
2.95 

1.41 
2.21 
0.77 
1.92 
2.06 
4.00 

12.60 

12.90 

15.05 
27.30 

8.06 

3.62 

16.05 

9.41 
2.45 
2.17 


To  begin  with,  it  must  be  admitted  that  labor,  more  especially  unskilled 
labor,  is  normally  higher  in  the  West  than  in  the  East.  For  this  reason, 
other  things  being  equal,  that  industry  will  be  least  handicapped  by  high 
wages  in  the  West  in  which  the  horsepower  used  per  person  engaged  in  the 
industry  is  greatest.  Thus,  if  we  assume  for  the  moment  that  hydro- 
electric power  can  be  developed  and  sold  for  general  industrial  service  in 
the  West  at  a price  $15.00  cheaper  per  horsepower  year  less  than  steam  power 
in  the  East,  and  that  a certain  industry  requires  10  horsepower  per  person 
engaged  in  the  industry,  then  the  total  saving  in  power  cost  per  person 
engaged  would  be  10X15,  or  $150.00  per  annum,  which  is  50  cents  per  work- 
ing day.  Thus  the  assumed  saving  in  power  would  offset  the  loss  to  the 
industry  resulting  from  an  average  daily  wage  about  50  cents  per  day 
higher  than  in  the  East.  If  less  power  is  used  a smaller  difference  in 
wages  is  justified,  and  vice  versa. 

Moreover,  it  may  be  generally  stated,  other  things  being  equal,  that 
industry  will  be  best  adapted  to  the  West  in  which  the  amount  of  power 
required  per  $1,000.00  production  is  the  greatest.  This  is  because  a given 
saving  in  the  price  of  power  will  result  in  a greater  percentage  reduction  in 
the  cost  of  manufacture. 

Thus,  generally  speaking,  in  the  two  columns  in  the  accompanying  table 
the  industries  with  the  highest  horsepower  in  either  or  both  columns  are 
the  ones  best  adapted  to  the  West,  unless  other  important  conditions,  of 
which  several  were  previously  enumerated,  contrive  to  offset  the  effect  of 
the  two  conditions  here  tabulated. 

One  of  the  largest  consumers  of  electric  energy  of  Class  A is  the  textile 
industry.  One  who  has  never  lived  in  the  Atlantic  States  does  not  often 
realize  the  magnitude  of  this  industry.  It  uses  about  2,250,000  mechanical 
horsepower  in  the  United  States  alone.  This  is,  of  course,  an  old  industry, 
and  the  cotton  and  woolen  mills  were  all  formerly  driven  by  steam  engines 
or  water  wheels  through  belts  and  shafting.  Electrification  has  been 
steadily  going  forward  since  the  advent  of  direct  motor  drive,  until  now 


74 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


750,000  horsepower,  or  about  one- third  of  the  entire  amount  used  in  the 
industry,  is  electrically  driven.  Much  of  this  energy  is  generated  by  water 
powers  in  the  New  England  States  and  by  the  Southern  Power  Co.,  in  the 
South  Atlantic  States. 

The  entire  cost  of  power  in  the  textile  industries  is  said  to  be  only  about 
5 per  cent  of  their  total  cost  of  production,  yet  if  they  could  save  one-half 
of  this,  which  is  improbable,  by  moving  to  the  West  and  using  hydro- 
electric power,  the  net  saving  to  the  industry  as  a whole  would  be  only 
about  2V2  per  cent  of  their  cost  of  production,  whereas  this  amount  would 
probably  again  be  lost  by  higher  prices  paid  for  labor  and  the  higher  freight 
rates  eastward  on  fabricated  goods  than  on  raw  materials. 

What  has  been  said  of  the  textile  industries  applies  also,  to  a large 
extent,  in  the  case  of  nearly  all  industries  which  can  use  electricity  only  or 
chiefly  for  power  purposes.  Such  industries  usually  comprise  those  with  a 
large  number  of  lathes,  planers,  drill  presses  and  special  machinery,  each 
machine  or  group  of  machines  having  an  attendant  whose  pay  far  exceeds 
the  cost  of  the  power  used  by  the  machine  attended.  Among  such  indus- 
tries, in  addition  to  textiles,  may  be  mentioned  the  first  twelve  shown  in 
the  table. 

In  probably  all  such  industries  the  cost  and  proximity  of  raw  materials, 
the  labor  supply  and  the  market  for  the  output  are  the  controlling  condi- 
tions in  seeking  a location.  It  may  confidently  be  stated  that  no  such 
industries  now  exist  here,  or  are  likely  in  the  future  to  be  attracted  here 
because  of  the  inducement  which  can  be  offered  due  to  any  possible 
difference  in  cost  of  power  for  such  services,  as  compared  withe  Eastern 
locations.  The  growth  which  has  already  taken  place  would  undoubtedly 
have  coine  without  relation  to  our  waterpower  resources.  The  completion 
of  the  Panama  Canal,  which  many  have  looked  upon  as  a boon  to  Western 
manufacturing,  can  only  operate  to  the  detriment  of  this  class  of  industries, 
since  it  permits  the  Eastern  manufacturer  to  lay  his  goods  dowm  on  the 
Western  market  at  a cheaper  price  than  formerly,  and  thus  still  further 
restrict  the  expansion  of  the  local  factories  by  reducing  the  transportation 
charges  from  the  East,  the  only  important  differential  which  the  Western 
producer  enjoys  tending  to  compensate  for  his  higher  cost  of  production 
resulting  from  his  smaller  output  and  higher  cost  of  labor. 

In  reality  the  expansion  in  most  industries  of  this  class  must  go  hand 
in  hand  with  the  expansion  of  tributary  population,  although  to  a lesser 
extent;  also  by  securing  a greater  proportion  of  the  local  trade  than  at 
present.  These  industries  cannot  flourish  without  a local  population  to 
absorb  the  output,  and  the  local  population  cannot  legitimately  expand 
without  the  growth  of  industries  to  furnish  employment.  An  exception 
must,  of  course,  be  made  in  the  case  of  lumber,  flour,  fish  and  other 
products  which  the  remainder  of  the  world  demands  from  us. 

However,  in  some  cases,  notably  in  the  case  of  lumber  manufacture,  the 
industry  itself  yields  a combustible  by-product  which  can  serve  as  fuel  for 
power  production,  and  which,  moreover,  requires  disposal  by  burning, 
whether  used  or  not.  In  such  instances  hydroelectric  energy  has  little 
prospect  of  general  adoption,  although  electrical  operation  from  local  refuse 
burning  steam  stations  is  rapidly  replacing  engine  drive  through  belts, 
pulleys  and  shafting  in  these  industries,  as  well  as  elsewhere. 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


75 


Of  the  remaining  industries  in  this  table,  some  show  a large  demand  for 
power'  per  unit  output  and  per  person  employed.  Let  us  consider  these 
industries  in  detail : 

Brick  and  tile  are  always  made  as  close  to  the  point  of  consumption  as 
possible  because  of  the  high  transportation  charge  in  proportion  to  the 
value  of  the  product.  Thus,  1,000  common  brick  weigh  about  4,500  pounds 
and  cost  in  Eastern  markets  about  $6.00  to  $7.00.  The  lowest  price  quoted  for 
Portland  to  New  York  transportation  through  the  Panama  Canal  before 
the  war  was  30  cents  per  hundred,  which  would  be  $13.50  per  1,000  bricks. 
This  cost  would  be  prohibitive  except  for  high  grade  brick  for  special 
purposes.  Cement  weighs  380  pounds  per  barrel  net,  or  nearly  400  pounds 
with  containers.  The  cost  of  transportation  alone  to  New  York  would  thus 
be  about  $1.20  per  barrel,  which  is  about  equal  to  the  usual  market  value 
of  cement  in  the  East.  Cement  would  need  to  be  produced  for  less  than 
nothing  to  compete.  In  reality,  both  brick  and  cement  cost  more  to  produce 
in  the  West  because  of  the  smaller  producing  units  and  higher  labor  cost. 

Flour  and  grist  mill  products  appear  to  require  only  a small  amount  of 
power  per  unit  value,  but  a large  amount  per  person  employed. 

This  latter  condition  is  favorable  to  this  industry,  as  indicating  the 
relative  unimportance  of  the  labor  handicap,  but  the  former  condition  indi- 
cates that  a saving  in  power  could  benefit  the  cost  of  production  but 
slightly  as  compared  with  the  East ; the  net  significance  of  the  two  figures 
being  that  the  industry  is  not  so  handicapped  as  others  due  to  labor,  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  has  little  interest  in  seeking  a location  with  reference 
to  cheap  power  supply. 

However,  the  West  produces  a large  amount  of  wheat  for  exportation, 
either  in  the  form  of  wheat  or  flour.  To  mill  a large  part  of  the  export 
wheat  before  shipment  is  a policy  to  be  encouraged  in  every  legitimate  way 
and,  judging  from  the  growth  already  accomplished,  can  be  done  with  profit. 

The  manufacture  of  ice  is  greatly  cheapened  by  a saving  in  the  price  of 
power.  The  ice  market,  however,  is  only  subject  to  local  competition  and  is 
nearly  proportional  to  the  local  population.  Cheap  power  cannot  obviously 
encourage  the  industry  to  localize  in  one  section  of  the  country. 

The  iron  and  steel  trade  demands  a large  amount  of  power  for  rolling 
mills  and  other  mechanical  purposes.  Much  of  this  is  now  supplied  by  gas 
engines  using  blast  furnace  gas  which  is  a by-product.  This  gas  can  often, 
however,  be  more  advantageously  used  for  reheating  if  cheap  hydroelectric 
power  were  available  to  displace  the  gas  for  power  purposes,  so  that  hydro- 
electric power  is  of  value  to  the  steel  industries.  Moreover,  not  enough  gas 
is  generally  obtained  from  the  furnace  to  furnish  the  necessary  power  and 
also  for  reheating  purposes.  This  field  will  be  treated  more  thoroughly 
under  “Electro-metallurgical  Industries.” 

Lumber  and  timber  industries  flourish  under  normal  conditions  in  the 
Northwest,  but  not  because  of  hydroelectric  power.  In  fact,  very  little  wa- 
ter power  is  used  in  this  industry,  preference  usually  being  given  to  power 
generated  by  wood  refuse,  their  own  by-product.  The  success  of  the  indus- 
try is  attributed  to  the  abundance  of  our  raw  product  and  the  lack  of  same 
over  a large  part  of  the  populous  area  of  the  United  States  and  Europe.  The 
world  must  come  to  us  for  a large  amount  of  lumber  regardless  of  high  cost 
of  transportation  and  regardless  of  the  cost  of  our  power. 


76 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


Paper  and  wood-pulp  industries  flourish  also  in  this  region.  This  is 
largely  the  result  of  waterpower,  but  also  dependent  upon  the  supply  of 
pulp-wood.  Cheap  waterpower  is  a necessity  for  the  pulp  and  paper  indus- 
try. Paper  produced  heretofore,  which  has  been  largely  of  news  print 
quality  has  had  little  other  than  a Western  consumption,  but  it  is  to  be  hoped 
and  expected  that  the  reduction  of  the  freight  rate  through  the  Isthmus, 
together  with  the  rapid  exhaustion  of  pulp  wood  in  the  East  and  prevailing 
high  prices  will  stimulate  more  rapid  development  of  our  pulp-wood  re- 
serves, and  with  it  our  waterpower.  It  might  here  be  suggested  that  a higher 
import  duty  on  pulp  and  paper  might  serve  to  turn  the  attention  of  the 
buyer  from  Canadian  sources,  now  largely  depended  upon,  and  simultan- 
eously stimulate  the  development  of  our  paper  industry. 

Copper  smelting  and  refining  will  be  treated  under  “Electro-metallurgi- 
cal Industries.” 

Class  B. — Industries  Requiring  both  Mechanical  Power  and  Heat. 

Among  such  industries  may  be  mentioned  laundries,  fruit  canneries,  fish 
canneries  and  makers  of  soap,  beet  sugar,  pottery,  glass,  steel,  cement,  brick, 
tile,  etc. 

In  many  of  these  industries  such  as  laundries  and  sugar  factories,  heat 
is  not  only  required  in  the  process,  but  moreover  is  required  in  the  form  of 
steam.  In  such  cases  the  steam  engine  usually  gets  the  preference,  and  often 
the  steam  for  other  purposes  can  be  obtained  very  cheaply  from  the  exhaust. 
In  most  cases  the  adaptation  of  hydroelectric  power  to  such  industries  is  of 
questionable  practicability  because  of  the  relatively  higher  cost  of  electric 
heat,  compelling  a larger  use  of  fuels  in  any  case  which  may  then  conven- 
iently supply  the  power  even  though  this  steam  power  may  first  be  used  to 
drive  electric  generators  for  electric  transmission  to  the  individual  machines 
rather  than  by  belts,  pulleys  and  shafting. 

Class  C. — Chiefly  Electro-Metallurgical  Industries. 

Within  recent  years  electricity  has  found  a wdde  field  of  application  in 
the  reduction  of  metals  from  their  ores  and  in  refining  them  thereafter. 
This  use  of  electricity  is  believed  to  be  only  in  its  infancy,  and  yet  the 
total  consumption  of  energy  for  this  purpose  is  already  immense. 

In  some  industries  electricity  finds  favor  over  combustion  processes 
because  of  the  more  accurate  control  over  heat  generated  and  the  resulting 
finer  grade  and  greater  uniformity  of  the  product ; in  other  cases  electricity 
furnishes  the  only  available  process  because  the  required  high  heat  can  be 
produced  in  a closed  chamber  in  the  absence  of  air,  which  cannot  be 
accomplished  with  fuels  if  a high  heat  is  required,  and  in  still  other  pro- 
cesses electricity  is  used  because  there  is  no  other  known  way  of  securing 
a sufficiently  high  temperature. 

In  some  of  these  industries  electrical  energy,  although  essential  to  the 
process,  is  yet  not  a predominating  element  in  the  cost  of  production,  but  in 
other  cases  the  cost  of  energy  is  so  important  a proportion  of  the  total  ex- 
pense as  to  cause  the  selection  of  a factory  site  to  be  governed  largely  by 
the  cheapness  of  the  power  supply,  unless  other  attendant  conditions  are 
very  unfavorable. 

Electricity  is  used  in  many  metallurgical  processes  in  a small  way  not 
sufficiently  important  for  detailed  consideration  here.  As  examples  may 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


be  cited  that  of  electrolytic  refining  of  gold,  silver,  calcium,  magnesium,  bis- 
muth and  copper.  In  these  industries  the  electrolytic  refining  is  only  one 
link  in  the  much  larger  refining  process,  almost  always  conducted  either 
at  the  smelters  or  near  New  York,  the  metal  market  of  the  United  States. 
To  interrupt  the  general  refining  process  when  it  reaches  the  stage  where 
electricity  is  demanded,  and  to  then  ship  the  material  to  a location  where 
cheap  energy  is  available  and  back  again  to  complete  the  remainder  of  the 
process  is  found  to  be  impracticable.  Although  the  electrolytic  refining  of 
copper  especially  is  a large  industry,  yet  it  need  not  be  considered  as  a 
probable  consumer  of  any  important  amount  of  our  hydroelectric  power, 
and  then  only  in  case  power  and  copper  ore  are  found  in  close  proximity, 
and  other  conditions  make  it  advisable  to  conduct  the  entire  reduction  and 
refining  process  at  or  near  the  mines. 

The  metallurgical  industries  which  are  or  promise  to  be  large  enough 
consumers  of  power  to  deserve  consideration  here  are  as  follows : reduction 
of  metals  from  their  ores,  aluminum,  iron,  copper,  zinc ; subsequent  treat- 
ments to  manufacture  steel  and  ferro-alloys. 

Classified  as  to  their  state  of  development  it  may  be  said  that  the 
processes  for  the  reduction  of  aluminum  and  iron  from  their  ores  and  the 
manufacture  of  steel  and  ferro-alloys  are  thoroughly  practicable  and  highly 
developed  processes  in  daily  and  successful  use  on  a large  scale.  The 
electric  smelting  of  copper  and  zinc  are  still  somewhat  experimental  both 
commercially  and  technically,  and  it  cannot  be  said  that  they  have  as  yet 
assumed  the  rank  of  established  industries.  These  industries  will  now  be 
considered  individually. 

Aluminum  is  perhaps  the  most  abundant  metal  in  nature,  being  a con- 
stituent of  nearly  all  clay  and  rock,  and  yet  its  separation  into  metallic 
form  has  always  been  and  still  is  a difficult  and  expensive  process.  Only 
certain  compounds  of  aluminum,  themselves  not  very  abundant,  have 
yielded  to  separation  and  principally  one  compound  bauxite,  at  a cost  which 
permits  its  extensive  use.  Thus,  although  aluminum  is  far  more  abundant 
than  iron,  its  usual  cost  of  production  is  roughly  twelve  cents  per  pound 
for  ingot  metal  as  compared  with  less  than  one  cent  for  pig  iron.  This  fact 
limits  the  use  of  aluminum  to  those  purposes  where  light  weight,  non-corro- 
sive qualities,  high  conductivity,  etc.,  are  required,  rather  than  for  general 
structural  purposes  such  as  iron. 

In  the  manufacture  of  aluminum,  electricity  enjoys  a monopoly  over 
combustion  processes  for  the  supply  of  the  necessary  heat  as  well  as  for  the 
electrolytic  operation.  The  market  for  electrical  energy  in  this  industry  will 
therefore  expand  as  the  use  of  aluminum  expands.  The  annual  production 
of  aluminum  in  the  United  States  is  reported  by.  the  United  States  Geologi- 
cal Survey  as  follows : 1883,  83  tons ; 1885,  283  tons ; 1890,  61,281  tons ; 
1895,  920,000  tons;  1900,  7,150,000  tons;  1905,  11,347,000  tons;  1910. 
47,734,000  tons;  and  1915,  99,806,000  tons. 

In  1910,  our  production  of  aluminum  in  the  United  States  was  about 
thirty-seven  per  cent  of  the  world’s  production,  but  figures  for  1915  are  not 
available. 


78 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


Mr.  Dorsey  A.  Lyon  has  estimated  the  cost  of  production  of  aluminum 
at  The  Dalles  as  follows:* 


COST  OF  PRODUCTION  OF  ALUMINUM  AT  THE  DALLES,  OREGON 


- c« 


o° 


2 tons  of  aluminum,  $28.75  per  ton 

200  pounds  of  cryolite  at  l%o  per  pound  

1,400  pounds  of  electrodes  at  5c  per  pound  , 

Other  fluxes,  etc.  - 

28,000  kilowatt  hours  electrical  energy  at  .2c  per  kilowatt  hour  or 

$13.00  per  horsepower  year  

Labor  - - 

Repairs  : l 1 , 

Amortization,  depreciation,  5 per  cent  each 

Interest,  6 per  cent  

General  - 

Total  per  ton  - 


$ 57.50  17.7 
3.00  .9 

70.00  21.5 

10.00  3.1 

56.00  17.3 

70.00  21.5 

10.00  3.1 

18.00  5.6 

10.00  3.1 

20.00  6.2 


$324.50 


Price  16.22  cents  per  pound. 


In  considering  the  practicability  of  establishing  this  industry  in  Oregon 
certain  comparisons  of  the  above  items  with  Eastern  costs  are  instructive. 
The  “alumina”  shown  in  the  above  estimate  is  refined  bauxite  which  is  found 
in  Alabama,  Arkansas,  Georgia  and  Tennessee.  Bauxite  is  normally  worth 
about  $4.75  per  long  ton  at  the  mine,  and  four  tons  are  required  per  ton  of 
aluminum  produced.  The  refined  product,  alumina,  is  worth  about  $19.50 
per  short  ton  at  the  mine,  and  two  tons  are  required  per  ton  of  aluminum 
produced.  The  cost  in  the  above  table  is  based  upon  refinement  before  ship- 
ment, the  cost  of  freight  to  The  Dalles  being  $9.25  per  ton,  constituting  an 
added  cost  of  ore  in  favor  of  Eastern  manufacture  amounting  to  47.5  per 
cent  of  the  cost  at  the  mine.  There  is  a bauxite  in  India  of  which  little  is 
known,  and  there  is  some  possibility  of  eventual  success  in  extracting 
aluminum  from  other  ores  which  exist  in  the  Western  United  States  as  from 
alunite  from  Utah,  but  little  can  be  promised  from  either  source  at  present. 
Cryolite  all  comes  from  Iceland,  and  because  of  extra  transportation  cost 
would  be  worth  fifty  per  cent  more  in  Oregon. 

The  electrodes  in  the  above  estimate  are  carbon  terminals  similar  to  those 
in  an  electric  arc  light  except  much  larger.  They  are  made  from  charcoal 
or  coke,  either  of  which  would  cost  about  twice  as  much  in  Oregon  as  in  the 
East. 

Labor  costs  about  $1.00  per  day  in  European  aluminum  plants,  $1.50  per 
day  in  Eastern  United  States  plants,  and  is  figured  at  $2.50  per  day  in  the 
above  estimate  for  Oregon.  If  we  now  add  the  above  savings  which  Eastern 
United  States  plants  enjoy  we  have: 


Saved  from  alumina  cost  $18.50 

Saved  from  cryolite  cost  1.00 

Saved  from  electrode  cost  . 35.00 

Saved  from  labor  cost  28.00 


Total  saving  $82.50 


Thus  the  saving  on  other  items  would  permit  the  Eastern  United  States 
manufacturer  to  pay  $82.50  plus  $56.00  or  $138.50  per  ton  of  aluminum  for 
electric  energy  or  $32.20  per  horsepower  year.  The  average  price  paid  for 


♦Columbia  River  Power  Project  Report — Journal  of  Electricity.  Power  and  Gas, 
San  Francisco,  California. 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


79 


electric  energy  at  Niagara  Falls  is  not  more  than  one-lialf  of  this  amount 
and  many  power  sites  yet  remain  to  he  developed  in  the  East  at  a cost  for 
generation  much  less  than  this. 

Although  the  above  figures  are  only  rough  approximations,  they  never- 
theless indicate  that  there  is  little  hope  of  competition  with  the  East  in  the 
aluminum  industry  without  a reduction  in  labor  rates,  discovery  of  bauxite 
in  the  West,  a cheapening  of  carbon  cost  by  the  introduction  of  Alaska  coal, 
or  other  changes  in  conditions  which  might  influence  these  important  ele- 
ments of  the  cost  of  aluminum. 

Even  with  the  cost  of  production  as  above  estimated  for  The  Dalles,  16.22 
cents  per  pound,  however  there  should  be  a profit  in  the  local  manufacture 
of  aluminum  since  the  market  price  for  the  total  has  seldom  if  ever  fallen 
below  twenty  cents  per  pound.  To  float  such  an  industry  would,  however, 
demand  the  use  of  home  capital  interested  in  the  general  development  of 
the  resources  aftd  population  of  Oregon.  Outsiders  interested  only  in  the 
production  of  aluminum  for  profit  would  naturally  select  the  cheapest 
location  or  would  require  some  form  of  subsidy. 

Reduction  of  Iron  Ore. — In  the  iron  industry  the  electric  furnace  was 
first  applied  to  the  manufacture  of  steel,  but  shortly  afterward,  in  1904,  Dr. 
Heroult  of  France,  succeeded  in  producing  pig  iron  from  iron  ore  in  the 
electric  furnace. 

Also  the  Canadian  government,  through  the  efforts  of  Dr.  Haanel, 
appointed  a commission  in  1904  to  investigate  the  possibilities  of  this 
industry  for  Canada.  They  studied  the  industry  in  Europe,  and  in  1916 
established  an  experimental  plant  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Ontario,  which  was 
later  abandoned.  The  process  was  technically  successful,  but  unfavorable 
commercial  conditions,  probably  aggravated  by  the  economic  stress  of 
succeeding  years,  resulted  in  the  discontinuance  of  the  enterprise. 

On  the  other  hand  it  may  be  said  that  electric  pig  iron  has  been  to  a 
large  degree  and  promises  to  remain  the  savior  of  the  Swedish  iron  industry. 
The  Swedes  have  long  enjoyed  a very  enviable  reputation  for  the  quality 
of  their  iron.  This  quality  w^as  partly  the  result  of  the  high  grade  of  the 
ores,  but  more  especially  of  the  use  of  charcoal  instead  of  coke  in  the  blast 
furnaces,  the  former  being  a purer  form  of  carbon.  The  paper  industry 
finally  created  such  a demand  for  w^ood  as  to  discourage  the  production 
of  charcoal,  except  at  prices  almost  prohibitive  to  the  iron  industry,  in 
competition  with  other  iron  producing  districts  having  a supply  of  coal 
and  coke.  Now,  it  so  happens  that  an  electric  pig  iron  furnace  uses  only 
one-third  as  much  charcoal  or  coke  as  does  a blast  furnace,  since  its  use  is 
confined  to  that  of  a reducing  agent  and  not  for  combustion,  the  heat  being 
obtained  from  the  electric  arc.  This  made  the  electric  furnace  attract- 
ive, but  to  effect  an  economy  it  was  of  course  necessary  that  electrical 
energy  be  produced  at  a cost  approximately  less  than  the  saving  in  charcoal, 
although  other  conditions  also  entered,  to  a lesser  extent. 

The  experiments  in  Sweden  w^ere  financed  to  the  extent  of  $90,000.00  by 
an  association  of  Swedish  ironmasters  encouraged  by  cheap  power  furnished 
by  the  Swedish  government.  The  first  commercial  plant  at  Trollhattan 
has  been  in  almost  continuous  service  since  its  installation  in  November, 
1910.  In  1914,  the  total  of  electric  pig  iron  furnaces  in  Swreden  consumed 
40,000  horsepower. 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


80 


An  electric  furnace  consumes  about  100  horsepower  per  ton  of  pig:  iron 
produced  per  twenty-four  hour  day  and  therefore  2,400  horsepower  hours 
or  1,800  kilowatt  hours  per  ton  of  pig.  At  a power  cost  of  $10.50  per 
horsepower  year  this  would  amount  to  $4.50  per  ton  of  pig  iron. 

It  must  be  distinctly  borne  in  mind  that  in  the  electric  pig  iron  industry 
electrical  energy  is  competing  directly  with  carbon  in  the  form  of  charcoal 
or  coke  used  in  the  blast  furnace,  and  the  relative  advantage  of  the  electric 
method  will  increase  in  proportion  as  carbon  is  expensive  and  electric  energy 
cheap.  Electricity  here  enjoys  no  such  monopoly  as  it  does  in  the  aluminum 
industry. 

As  applied  to  Pacific  Coast  and  particularly  to  Oregon  conditions,  it 
should  be  said  that  for  the  local  market,  electricity  as  a source  of  heat 
must  not  only  thus  compete  locally  with  local  carbon  costs,  but  must  more- 
over compete  with  Eastern  or  foreign  costs  in  production  of  pig  iron  by 
either  blast  furnace  or  electric  power  plus  the  cost  of  transportation  to  the 
Coast. 

Not  many  favorable  situations  exist  on  the  Pacific  Coast  and  especially 
in  Oregon  for  the  production  of  pig  iron.  The  electric  production  of  pig 
iron  requires  electric  energy,  iron  ore,  charcoal  or  coke,  and  limestone, 
the  last  named  acting  as  a flux.  None  of  these  materials  is  so  valuable 
as  to  sustain  a large  transportation  cost  to  assemble  them  at  the  source  of 
power,  and  the  transmission  of  power  so  increases  its  cost  as  to  prohibit 
this  treatment  of  the  problem.  To  be  successful  all  must  be  obtainable 
within  reasonable  distance  of  each  other  and  of  the  market  for  pig  iron,  or 
very  cheap  transportation  by  water  must  contribute  to  reduce  the  cost  of 
assembling  the  raw  materials  and  marketing  the  product. 

Coking  coal  exists  on  Vancouver  Island  as  well  as  in  Alaska  and  at 
Crow’s  Nest  Pass,  British  Columbia,  but  $6.00'  or  $7.00  per  ton  f.  o.  b.  Port- 
land appears  to  be  about  the  minimum  cost  at  which  it  could  be  delivered 
as  compared  with  about  one-half  of  this  in  Eastern  iron  districts.  Raw 
material  for  charcoal  exists  nearly  everywhere  in  the  West,  but  all  experi- 
ments have  failed  to  produce  it  or  estimate  its  cost  at  less  than  $8.00  per 
ton,  even  by  allowing  for  the  best  probable  use  of  the  by-products  under 
present  competition  with  the  by-products  of  Southern  yellow  pine. 

Limestone  is  found  near  Roseburg  and  in  the  Blue  Mountains  of  East- 
ern Oregon,  as  well  as  upon  Puget  Sound,  Northern  California  and  North- 
eastern Washington.  On  the  Snake  River,  in  Northeastern  Oregon,  are 
both  limestone  and  power,  but  coke  and  iron  ore  would  need  to  be  brought 
from  long  distances  and  the  pig  iron  would  not  then  be  near  a market. 

There  appears  to  be  no  sufficient  known  supply  of  iron  ore  in  Oregon 
upon  which  to  predicate  a large  pig  iron  industry.  Southern  California 
ore  would  be  too  expensive  upon  reaching  Oregon,  as  it  is  located  several 
hundred  miles  inland  from  a seaport.  Chinese  ore  offers  the  greatest 
promise.  It  could  probably  be  loaded  directly  upon  sea-going  vessels  on  the 
Yangtse  River  and  delivered  on  a dock  in  the  Columbia  River  for  about 
$5.00  per  ton,  which  is  about  the  price  of  Lake  Superior  ore  delivered  in 
Pittsburg. 

The  islands  in  Puget  Sound  would  probably  furnish  the  cheapest  supply 
of  limestone,  while  charcoal  would  probably  serve  best  as  a reducing  agent. 
The  cost  of  production  has  been  estimated  by  Dorsey  A.  Lyon*  to  be  about 


Report  on  the  Columbia  River  Power  Project  near  The  Dalles  Oregon. 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


81 


$26.00  per  ton  of  pig  iron  as  compared  with  a usual  market  price  in  San 
Francisco,  the  only  market  of  importance  which  would  be  available,  of 
$20.00  to  $25.00  per  ton,  shipped  from  the  East  by  rail  and  about  $18.00 
by  water  through  the  Panama  Canal. 

Electric  reduction  of  copper  has  been  tried  in  Norway  with  apparent 
success,  and  has  been  proven  technically  practicable  in  experiments  in  the 
United  States.  Its  use  is  only  in  lieu  of  the  use  of  fuel,  however,  and  the 
only  inducements  for  its  use  would  be  that  of  econo  ny,  not  likely  to  be 
realized  under  very  special  conditions  and  also  possible  better  quality, 
concerning  which  there  appears  to  be  a lack  of  data. 

Electric  reduction  of  zinc  is  in  regular  commercial  use  at  Trollhattan. 
in  Sweden,  where  about  13,000  horsepower  \yas  consumed  in  1914,  and 
also  in  other  Swedish  localities. 

Much  trouble  has  been  experienced  in  the  development  of  the  electric 
zinc  reduction  process  due  to  the  fact  that  the  zinc  vaporizes  in  the  furnace 
instead  of  liquefying,  and  the  resulting  vapor  tends  to  condense  into 
“blue  powder”,  and  does  not  readily  condense  into  metallic  zinc  under  the 
peculiar  conditions  of  the  electric  furnace.  Enough  success  has  attended 
the  experimental  work,  however,  to  result  in  the  very  considerable  develop- 
ment at  Trollhattan. 

Very  recently  the  Anaconda  Copper  Mining  Company  has  developed  an 
electrolytic  zinc  reduction  process.  The  zinc  concentrates  after  being 
roasted,  are  treated  with  a dilute  sulphuric  acid  which  causes  the  zinc  to 
be  dissolved  to  zinc  sulphate.  The  zinc  sulphate  solution  is  electrolyzed, 
using  insoluble  anodes  with  a production  of  metallic  zinc  at  the  cathode. 
The  Anaconda  Copper  Mining  Company  is  making  (September,  1916)  about 
fifty  tons  of  this  zinc  per  day,  requiring  about  12,500  horsepower,  and  within 
two  months  will  double  its  capacity. 

Electric  Steel. — In  the  manufacture  of  pig  iron  from  iron  ore  little  effort 
at  purification  is  attempted,  and  the  electric  furnace  must  rise  or  fall 
largely  according  to  its  relative  cost  of  production  as  compared  to  that  of 
a blast  furnace.  Not  so  in  the  case  of  steel. 

The  manufacture  of  steel  is  ordinarily  a secondary  treatment,  being 
merely  the  process  of  refining  pig  iron.  Moreover  steel  is  of  many  grades 
varying  widely  in  quality  and  physical  properties  and  demanding  corre- 
sponding prices  on  the  market.  Steel  made  by  the  Bessemer  furnace  and 
used  mostly  for  rails  and  structural  purposes  is  the  cheapest  quality,  and 
from  here  the  qualities  grade  upward  through  that  of  “open  hearth”  steel 
to  the  higher  grades  of  “crucible”  steel  and  special  tool  steels,  at  increas- 
ingly higher  market  values. 

It  has  been  fully  demonstrated  that  a much  more  accurate  control  of  the 
composition  of  steel  can  be  secured  in  the  electric  furnace  than  by  other 
methods,  and  the  value  of  this  close  control  becomes  of  increasing  value 
to  the  higher  grades  of  steel.  A special  Canadian  Government  commission 
visited  the  electric  steel  furnaces  in  Europe  in  1904  and  reported  that 
steel  equal  in  all  respects  to  the  best  Sheffield  crucible  steel  could  be  pro- 
duced in  the  electric  furnace  at  considerably  less  cost,  but  that  a cheap 
grade  of  steel,  such  as  Bessemer,  could  not  be  produced  electrically  to 
compete  with  present  methods. 

The  electric  furnace  has  found  favor,  however,  partially  because  it  can 
use  poorer  grades  of  material,  such  as  scrap,  and  partially  for  the  refining 


82 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


to  higher  grades,  of  steel  initially  produced  in  Bessemer  furnaces.  Experi- 
ments are  also  said  to  have  proven  technically  successful  for  the  production 
of  steel  directly  from  the  iron  ore,  one  successful  application  on  an  experi- 
mental scale  having  been  made  at  Belleville,  Ontario.  Meanwhile  the  use 
of  the  electric  furnace  for  the  production  of  high  grade  steels  and  to  some 
extent  for  rails  has  been  steadily  growing,  the  amount  reported  from  the 
entire  world  being  as  follows,  with  several  countries  not  reporting : 3908, 

26,610  tons ; 1909,  47,039  tons ; 1910,  120,116  tons ; 1911,  126,476  tons. 

Dorsey  A.  Lyon  has  shown*  that  a large-tonnage  steel  plant  in  Oregon 
would  not  be  commercially  feasible,  although  a small  demand  for  special 
purposes  might  be  manufactured  locally. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  seems  probable  that  there  is  sufficient  demand  in 
coast  cities  for  cast  steel  for  the  many  machinery  manufactures  serving 
the  lumber,  shipbuilding,  and  other  trades  to  warrant  the  development  of 
electric  furnace  steel  plants  to  an  extent  sufficient  to  consume  the  scrap 
steel  of  the  West,  which  now  brings  almost  no  return  because  of  the  distance 
it  must  be  shipped  to  the  steel  mills  of  the  East.  The  scrap  steel  could  now 
be  purchased  for  one-fifth,  and  with  an  active  market  established  prob- 
ably for  one-half  the  cost  of  importing  pig  iron  from  the  East  or  producing 
it  locally. 

Ferro-Alloys. — The  modern  industrial  world  has  learned  to  make  a vast 
number  of  grades  of  steel  from  which  to  select  one  best  fitted  for  every 
special  purpose  in  the  foundry,  the  machine  shop  or  the  rolling  mill.  A very 
small  amount,  usually  less  than  1 per  cent,  of  some  ingredient  such  as  man- 
ganese, chromium,  silicon,  nickel,  vanadium,  phosphorus,  molybdenum,  tita- 
nium, tungsten  and  some  other  metals,  in  addition  to  the  best-known  ingre- 
dient carbon  (not  classified  as  a ferro-alloy),  are  found  to  radically  change 
the  physical  properties  such  as  strength,  ductility,  durability,  thermal  expan- 
sion, resilience,  thermal  conductivity,  permanence  of  temper  when  heated, 
and  other  qualities,  each  requisite  for  some  special  purpose. 

The  manufacture  of  these  special  alloy  steels  is  in  most  cases  accom- 
plished by  first  making  ordinary  steel  in  the  usual  furnaces  and  then,  just 
when  the  charge  is  ready  to  be  poured,  in  introducing  into  the  furnace  a 
definite  amount  of  molten  “ferro-alloy”  which  is  merely  the  desired  alloy 
in  very  concentrated  form.  Most  of  these  concentrated  alloys  are  now 
produced  in  the  electric  furnace,  and  before  the  war  at  least,  principally  in 
Europe. 

The  great  value  of  the  electric  furnace  in  the  manufacture  of  these 
“ferro-alloys”  arises  from  the  purity  and  the  concentration  secured,  although 
in  some  cases  a high  enough  heat  cannot  be  obtained  in  any  other  manner. 
Thus  the  electric  furnace  has  increased  the  possible  content  of  silicon  in 
ferro-silicon  from  12  per  cent  to  50  per  cent,  and  of  chromium  in  ferro- 
chrome  from  35  per  cent  to  65  per  cent,  or  more. 

The  fact  that  the  chief  growth  of  these  industries  has  been  in  Europe 
was  the  result  largely  of  the  cheaper  waterpowers  and  of  the  fact  that 
their  use  was  first  developed  there,  and  the  demand  was  greater.  Euro- 
peans have  quite  generally  been  ahead  of  Americans  in  the  advancement 
of  metallurgical  processes. 

Several  of  these  ferro-alloys  are  now  made  at  Niagara  Falls  and  else- 
where in  the  East.  Whether  or  not  these  industries  could  be  profitably 
developed  in  Oregon  depends  upon  the  usual  variety  of  conditions  including 

* Columbia  River  Power  Project  Report. 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


83 


that  of  cost  of  power.  Only  ferro-silicon  and  ferro-chrome  are  large 
enough  consumers  of  electrical  energy  upon  which  to  predicate  a power 
development  or  to  be  considered  as  important  possible  customers  of  existing 
developments.  The  manufacture  of  other  ferro-alloys  could  best  serve  as 
sidelines  for  the  larger  industries. 

Ferro-silicon  requires  iron  in  some  form,  as  for  example,  iron  ore,  steel 
scrap  or  the  turnings  from  iron-  or  steel-working  machines,  also  some  form 
of  silica  and  some  form  of  carbon.  Iron  ore  would  require  being  brought 
in  from  a long  distance,  although  this  might  perhaps  be  done  economically 
from  China ; the  amount  of  turnings  and  scrap  now  available  is  small  but 
would  increase  with  industrial  growth;  probably  the  supply  of  iron  would 
not  be  a serious  problem.  A sufficiently  pure  form  of  silica  is  not  abundant 
as  it  is  in  many  eastern  localities.  Quartzite  rock  does  not  seem  to  be 
available,  and  our  sand  is  a mixture  of  grains  of  many  minerals  instead  of 
nearly  pure  quartz  (or  silica)  as  often  occurs  in  regions  of  greater  geologi- 
cal age,  where  the  less  resistant  grains  have  been  leached  and  worn  away. 
We  have,  however,  several  deposits  of  diatomaceous  earth  of  high  purity 
along  the  Columbia  and  Deschutes  Rivers  which,  because  of  its  soft  pow- 
dery texture  could  be  cheaply  mined  and  used,  but  might  be  wasteful  in  the 
furnace  through  excessive  “dust  loss.”  The  most  serious  difficulty  would 
probably  be  encountered,  as  for  nearly  all  industries  thus  far  considered, 
in  obtaining  a supply  of  carbon  in  the  form  of  either  charcoal  or  coke  at  a 
reasonable  price.  The  amount  of  power  required  is  about  one  and  six- tenths 
horsepower-years  per  ton  of  50  per  cent  ferro-silicon. 

Dorsey  A.  Lyon  has  estimated*  that  the  cost  of  producing  ferro-silicon 
at  The  Dalles,  based  upon  power  at  $11.70  per  horsepower-year,  would 
be  about  $60.00  per  long  ton,  and  the  cost  delivered  and  sold  in  Pittsburg 
would  be  about  $73.50  per  ton,  while  the  market  price  . in  Pittsburg 
ranges  from  $70.00  to  $75.00  per  ton.  He  concludes  that  the  ferro-silicon 
industry  is  not  well  enough  suited  to  local  conditions  to  be  assured  of  any 
profit  in  competition  with  the  foreign  sources,  and  therefore  reports 
unfavorably. 

Ferro-chrome  requires  chromite,  which  can  be  obtained  in  California, 
and  some  form  of  carbon  as  coke  or  charcoal.  The  power  required  is 
about  one  and  twenty-five  hundredths  horsepower-years  per  ton  of  60  per 
cent  ferro-chrome. 

Dorsey  A.  Lyon  estimates  the  cost  of  producing  this  material  at  The 
Dalles  and  marketing  it  in  Pittsburg  to  be  about  $85.00  per  ton,  which 
would  yield  a net  profit  of  about  $15.00  per  ton.  This  ferro-alloy  is,  however, 
supplied  almost  entirely  from  domestic  sources  ample  to  meet  the  demand. 
An  active  competition  would  at  once  result,  for  which  no  duty  could  provide 
a remedy  and  the  consequences  of  which  would  be  uncertain.  He  concludes 
that  the  ultimate  capacity  of  a successful  plant  would  not  require  more 
than  3,000  horsepower  of  the  10.000  horsepower  now  devoted  to  this  industry 
in  the  United  States. 

Class  D — Electro-Chemical  Industries. 

In  this  subdivision  of  electrical  industries,  many,  if  not  most,  of  the 
processes  are  similar  to  those  of  the  electro-metallurgical  industries  in  that 
they  require  the  electric  furnace  or  electrolytic  bath,  except  not  primarily 


Columbia  River  Power  Project  Report. 


84 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


concerned  with  the  reduction  and  treatment  of  ores  for  the  recovery  and 
refinement  of  the  metal.  The  electro-chemical  industries  require  the  electric 
furnace  or  the  electrolytic  hath  usually  for  the  recombination  of  chemical 
compounds  or  the  synthetic  production  of  chemical  compounds  rather  than 
for  the  extraction  of  the  metalliferous  substances  from  existing  compounds 
or  ores. 

For  this  purpose  the  electric  methods  have  permitted  the  discovery  and 
manufacture  of  many  useful  compounds  hitherto  unknown  in  nature  or  the 
arts,  and  which  cannot  be  produced  by  any  other  than  electric  methods.  On 
the  other  hand,  some  of  the  electro-chemical  products  can  be  produced  by 
other  means,  and  the  adopted  method  will  depend  upon  relative  costs  and 
quality. 

The  most  complete  and  unbiased  published  study  of  the  possibility  of 
electro-chemical  developments  in  the  West  is  the  chapter  by  F.  O.  Stafford 
in  the  report  on  The  Columbia  River  Power  Project  near  The  Dalles, 
Oregon,*  which  will  frequently  be  referred  to  herein,  and  upon  which  most 
of  the  following  conclusions  are  based.  He  discusses  the  possibilities  with 
respect  to  the  production  of  abrasives,  caustic  and  bleach,  calcium  carbide, 
chlorates,  cyanides,  graphite  nitrogen  compounds  and  phosphorus 
compounds. 

Abrasives  formerly  consisted  of  natural  sand  or  emery  formed  into 
wheels  and  stones,  or  mounted  on  paper. 

Sand  and  coke  in  the  intense  heat  of  the  electric  furnace  unite  to  form 
“carborundum”  or  “crystolon”  (trade  names  for  the  same  substance),  a 
substance  nearly  as  hard  as  the  diamond  and  now  extensively  used  as  an 
abrasive. 

Another  substance,  “alundum,”  or  aluminum  oxide  fused  in  the  electric 
furnace,  has  become  useful  as  an  abrasive. 

These  abrasives  are  now  made  at  Niagara  Falls  and  there  is  no  hope  of 
transferring  or  developing  a rival  source  for  several  reasons:  (1)  One  of 
the  two  constituents  of  carborundum  is  coke,  the  extra  cost  of  which, 
together  with  the  cost  of  labor  in  the  West,  would  offset  any  possible  cheaper 
cost  of  power  than  at  Niagara,  and  aluminum  oxide  in  the  form  used  for 
alundum  is  chiefly,  if  not  only,  obtainable  in  the  East;  (2)  the  present 
makers  of  abrasives  also  make  the  finished  wheels,  hones,  etc.,  and  enjoy 
a monopoly  in  their  sale  not  easy  to  overcome;  (3)  98  per  cent  of  the 
finished  product  is  now  used  in  the  region  tributary  to  Niagara. 

Caustic  and  bleach  are  inseparably  related.  The  former  is  produced 
by  the  electrolysis  of  a solution  of  common  table  salt  in  water,  and  the 
chlorine  gas,  which  escapes,  is  then  treated  with  quicklime  to  obtain 
bleaching  powder. 

Bleaching  powder  is  the  real  aim  of  the  electrical  process  since  caustic 
(or  lye)  is  principally  and  more  cheaply  produced  by  the  old  process  and 
only  serves  in  the  electrical  method  as  a by-product  which  can  be  sold  at 
any  market  price  in  competition  with  old-process  lye,  thus  merely  tending 
to  cheapen  the  cost  of  bleach. 

Even  assuming  power  to  cost  twice  as  much  at  Niagara,  where  this 
material  is  now  chiefly  produced,  as  it  might  in  Oregon,  the  additional  cost 
of  lime,  labor,  and  salt  at  The  Dalles  would  add  about  $15.00  to  the  cost  of 
producing  one  ton  of  lye  and  the  accompanying  two  and  one-half  tons  of 
bleach  ($90.00  at  The  Dalles  and  $75.00  at  Niagara),  and  if  transportation 


Published  by  the  Journal  of  Electricity — Power  and  Gas,  of  San  Francisco. 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


85 


at  $6.00  per  ton  to  New  York,  the  lowest  price  yet  quoted  through  the  Pan- 
ama Canal  be  added,  the  cost  is  increased  $36.00  over  the  Niagara  product  or 
to  about  $111.00.  The  usual  market  price  in  the  East  is  about  $45.00  per  ton 
for  lye  and  $25.00  or  $30.00  for  bleach,  amounting  to  $107.50  to  $120.00. 
The  conclusion  is  evident  that  The  Dalles  at  least  could  not  produce  these 
materials  to  successfully  enter  the  Eastern  market  and  higher  cost  of 
power  elsewhere  than  that  assumed  by  Stafford  for  The  Dalles  ($9.00  per 
horsepower-year)  would  make  the  same  conclusion  generally  applicable  for 
the  West.  There  is  little  doubt,  however,  that  the  West  could  successfully 
compete  with  Eastern  sources  in  supplying  its  own  demands.  Unfortunately 
this  West  coast  demand  is  chiefly  for  caustic,  which  does  not  require  the 
electric  method.  The  production  of  caustic  would,  therefore,  be  limited  by 
the  demand  for  bleach.  The  demand  is  for  about  4,000  tons  of  caustic  and 

5.000  tons  of  bleach,  whereas  to  produce  4,000  tons  of  caustic  would  necessi- 
tate that  10,000  tons  of  bleach  be  sold.  Any  development  must,  therefore, 
anticipate  the  production  of  only  2,000  tons  of  lye  in  order  not  to  over- 
produce the  5,000  tons  of  salable  bleach  and  the  market  for  power  thus 
created  would  be  only  about  1,000  horsepower.  It  is  evident  that  the  market 
for  these  products  is  limited  by  the  market  for  bleach,  and  the  expansion  of 
this  market  is  dependent  upon  the  expansion  of  the  textile  industries  which 
in  turn  would  use  hydroelectric  power. 

Calcium  carbide  is  made  by  subjecting  a mixture  of  lime  and  carbon 
(coke,  charcoal  or  anthracite  coal)  to  the  intense  heat  of  the  electric 
furnace,  and  it,  like  the  abrasives,  can  be  made  only  in  this  manner. 

The  industry,  however,  was  on  the  decline  for  some  years.  This  material 
is  used  chiefly  for  making  acetylene  gas,  which  once  promised  a great  future 
for  lighting  purposes,  but  has  been  nearly  superseded  by  the  electric  light, 
even  on  automobiles.  More  recently  the  oxyacetylene  flame  has  come  into 
extensive  use  for  cutting  and  welding  iron  and  steel,  which  promises  to 
furnish  a permanent  market. 

The  industry  was  once  greatly  over-developed,  but  since  1899  production 
has  been  limited  by  selling  agreements  in  Europe  and  monopoly  in  America, 
as  the  industry  contracted,  many  carbide  furnaces  were  converted  into 
other  uses.  It  was  furnaces  thus  thrown  out  of  use  that  were  converted 
in  several  European  countries  for  the  manufacture  of  ferro-alloys  previously 
discussed  and  perhaps  to  some  extent  the  fortunate  position  of  Europe  in 
the  ferro-alloy  trade  is  thus  the  involuntary  result  of  its  misfortune  in  the 
carbide  industry. 

Also  some  carbide  plants  have  continued  in  operation,  the  product  not 
being  sold  but  used  as  a basis  for  further  treatment,  yielding  other  products 
to  be  discussed  under  “nitrogen  compounds.” 

The  world’s  production  of  carbide  is  about  300,000  tons,  consuming  about 

180.000  horsepower,  about  one-fourth  of  which  is  produced  in  the  United 
States  at  Niagara  Falls  and  at  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Michigan. 

If  consumption  is  assumed  to  be  in  proportion  to  population,  then  the 
Pacific  Coast  could  only  use  about  3,000  tons  per  annum,  whereas  a plant 
-producing  25,000  tons  is  considered  the  smallest  economical  producing  unit. 

The  cost  of  producing  this  material  in  the  East  is  probably  about  $35.00 
per  ton  packed  for  shipment,  although  the  business  is  so  closely  guarded 
that  statistics  are  difficult  to  obtain.  About  $10.00  per  ton  of  this  cost  is  for 
power  figured  at  $15.00  per  horsepower-year,  a rather  higher  proportion 


86 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


than  for  most  chemical  or  metallurgical  industries.  It  is  also  a product  of 
rather  low  value  per  ton,  a condition  always  favorable  (other  things  being 
equal)  to  Western  manufacture  to  the  extent  of  Western  consumption. 

A Western  development  of  this  industry  for  West  Coast  and  perhaps 
Asiatic  consumption  may  be  an  ultimate  possibility  although  the  complete 
present  monopoly  of  the  field  by  the  Union  Carbide  Company  would  make 
the  commercial  problem  a difficult  one  unless  operated  as  a branch  of  this 
company. 

Chlorates. — Explosives  with  potassium  chlorate  or  sodium  chlorate  as  an 
oxidizing  agent,  instead  of  sodium  nitrate,  as  now  generally  used,  have  long 
been  the  desire  of  explosive  manufacturers. 

Several  have  been  made  with  potassium  chlorate  and  placed  upon  the 
market  but  have  never  been  very  popular,  due  principally  to  some  unfortu- 
nate premature  explosions  during  their  early  development.  They  are  now 
declared  to  be  entirely  successful,  both  as  to  safety  of  manufacture  and 
storage.  Potassium  chloride,  the  raw  material,  however,  has  been  almost 
exclusively  imported  from  Germany  prior  to  the  war,  and  probably  will  be 
principally  after  the  war,  although  attempts  are  now  being  made  to  utilize 
the  alunite  deposits  of  Utah  and  elsewhere  and  to  extract  potash  from  the 
kelp,  a variety  of  seaweeds  abundant  along  the  Pacific  coast. 

More  recent  developments  seem  to  have  been  successful  in  producing 
satisfactory  explosives  using  sodium  chlorate,  a material  much  cheaper  than 
potassium  chlorate,  and  made  from  common  salt,  a material  abundant  in  the 
United  States. 

The  manufacture  of  either  potassium  chlorate  or  sodium  chlorate  is  an 
electrical  process,  the  raw  materials  being  potassium  chloride  or  radium 
chloride  (common  table  salt)  respectively.  This  industry,  if  developed 
on  the  Pacific  Coast,  would  be  chiefly  for  explosive  manufacture  and  its 
success  would  depend  upon  the  success  and  popularity  which  the  chlorate 
powders,  especially  the  radium  chlorate  powders,  meet  with  in  the  future. 
If  the  powder  proves  much  cheaper,  as  it  should,  then  the  industry  for 
Western  consumption  would  be  justified  as  the  consumption  of  powder  for 
land  clearing,  mining  and  railroad  construction  is  considerable.  There  is 
little  prospect,  however,  of  successfully  entering  the  eastern  market  with 
Western-made  chlorate. 

Graphite. — This  material  occurs  in  nature,  from  which  the  entire  supply 
was  obtained  before  the  invention  of  the  electrical  process.  . 

The  Atcheson  Graphite  Company  at  Niagara  Falls  now  manufactures  in 
the  electric  furnace  a high  grade  of  this  material  for  all  purposes,  one  of  the 
important  uses  being  for  electrodes  used  in  electrical  furnaces.  The  raw 
material  is  anthracite  coal,  which  we  do  not  have,  and  the  market  is  almost 
entirely  in  the  East.  A large  growth  of  electric  furnace  industries  in  the 
West  would  demand  electrodes,  but  since  the  anthracite  coal  is  in  the  East 
there  is  no  apparent  prospect  of  this  industry  in  the  West. 

Nitrogen  Compounds. — Nitrogen  in  chemical  combination  is  one  of  the 
three  essential  elements  of  soil  fertility  (the  other  two  being  potash  and 
phosphorus)  ; it  is  used  in  nearly  all  explosives  now  manufactured ; it  is 
essential  to  the  dye  industry  and  to  other  chemical  industries. 

In  the  free  state  it  exists  in  the  fabulous  amount  of  70,000,000  pounds 
of  nitrogen  gas  over  each  acre  of  the  earth’s  surface.  In  this  free  state, 
however,  it  is  of  no  value  to  the  arts  and  of  apparently  little  value  to 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


87 


plants,  only  certain  few  of  which  seem  to  possess  the  power  to  utilize  this 
atmospheric  nitrogen.  These  plants,  the  clover  family,  are  very  widely 
used  in  exhausted  soil  to  replenish  its  nitrogen  content,  since  these  plants 
not  only  extract  from  the  air  enough  nitrogen  for  their  own  use  but  also 
leave  highly  nitrogen-bearing  “legumes”  in  the  soil,  which  upon  decay 
replenish  this  needed  element.  For  intensive  agriculture  this  source  is  not 
generally  economical  unless  the  clover,  alfalfa,  or  the  hay  product  brings 
as  high  a market  price  per  acre  as  the  other  crops,  and  the  artificial  appli- 
cation of  nitrogen  compounds  to  the  soil  is  consequently  resorted  to. 

Nitrogen  compounds  occur  in  nature  to  only  a very  limited  extent  except 
in  Chile,  upon  which  the  world  has  largely  depended  for  many  years  for  its 
supply,  where  it  is  found  in  the  form  of  sodium  nitrate.  This  supply  can 
only  last  for  perhaps  fifty  years,  and  is  becoming  increasingly  expensive 
to  recover.  The  Chilean  government  now  charges  an  export  duty  of  $11.1)0 
per  ton  on  nitrate,  which  brings  the  normal  cost  of  delivery  to  American 
ports  to  about  $30.00  to  $35.00  per  ton. 

The  recovery  of  ammonia  as  a by-product  in  the  manufacture  of  coal 
gas  and  coke  promises  a large  and  increasing  supply,  but  not  enough  to 
meet  the  demands  of  the  trade,  while  the  use  of  packing-house  waste,  such 
as  dried  blood,  “tankage,”  and  fish  scrap,  as  nitrogen-bearing  material  for 
fertilizer,  is  decreasing  because  of  the  greater  value  of  this  material  for 
other  purposes. 

The  only  available  sufficient  source  of  commercial  nitrogen  compounds 
is  from  the  air,  and  until  scientists  learned  to  recover  this  nitrogen  com- 
mercially, economists  feared  the  world  was  facing  a nitrogen  and  therefore 
a food  famine. 

Three  general  processes  have  been  perfected  for  obtaining  nitrogen 
from  the  air  : (1)  Direct  fixation  or  oxidation  process,  (2)  cyanamide 

process,  (3)  synthetic  ammonia  process. 

(1)  Direct  fixation  is  a direct  combination  of  atmospheric  nitrogen  and 
atmospheric  oxygen,  or  burning,  so  to  speak,  of  nitrogen,  which  takes  place 
in  the  intense  heat  of  the  electric  arc.  To  accomplish  this,  three  different 
furnaces  or  processes  have  been  developed  and  patented,  the  Birkland-Eyde. 
the  Schoenherr  and  the  Paulinge.  The  Birkland-Eyde  appears  to  have  been 
the  most  sucessful,  at  least  it  has  been  more  used  since  it  is  the  basis  of 
the  immense  industry  in  Norway,  which  started  as  an  experimental  plant 
with  twenty-five  horsepower  in  1903  and  in  1912  was  utilizing  220,000  horse- 
power for  this  purpose  and  had  become  one  of  the  largest  electric  power 
consuming  manufacturing  industries  in  the  world.  The  material  formed 
in  the  electric  arc  is  an  oxide  of  nitrogen,  which  is  then  passed  through 
water,  where  it  forms  nitric  acid,  which  may  then  be  sold  as  such  or  applied 
to  limestone  or  common  salt  to  form  the  calcium  nitrate  or  sodium  nitrate 
commonly  used  as  fertilizer  or  the  potassium  nitrate  more  commonly  used 
for  pow’der. 

The  process  requires  electric  power  and  the  desirable  mineral  element  as 
raw  materials. 

(2)  The  cyanamide  process  uses  calcium  carbide  as  a raw  material, 
which  in  itself  requires  the  electric  furnace  for  its  manufacture  as  pre- 
viously discussed.  This  industry  owes  its  development  somewhat  to  the 
over-development  of  the  carbide  industry  and  the  experiments  which  were 
then  undertaken  to  find  a use  for  the  product. 


88 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


The  process  merely  involves  the  heating  of  carbide  in  an  atmosphere  of 
pure  nitrogen  upon  which  the  nitrogen  is  absorbed  to  form  cyanamide.  This 
product  contains  slightly  more  nitrogen  per  pound  than  does  the  sodium  or 
calcium  nitrate  of  commerce,  and  has  formed  a considerable  field  of  use- 
fulness or  a constituent  of  commercial  fertilizers.  By  a secondary  treat- 
ment with  water,  ammonia  is  readily  obtained  and  this  is  what  actually 
occurs  when  used  as  a fertilizer. 

Synthetic  ammonia  process  or  Haber  process  is  of  more  recent  origin. 
It  consists  of  heating  a mixture  of  the  correct  proportions  of  nitrogen  and 
hydrogen  gases  under  high  pressure  to  a temperature  of  500  degrees  C. 
The  required  temperature  is  so  low  that  electric  heating  is  not  absolutely 
necessary  although  said  to  be  desirable.  This  process  is  now  controlled 
by  the  Badusche  Anilin  and  Soda  Fabrik  of  Berlin. 

If  nitrogen  fixation  is  to  prove  commercially  feasible  in  Oregon,  the 
favored  process  most  likely  to  succeed  here,  as  compared  with  the  East, 
other  things  being  equal,  will  be  one  having  a large  power  requirement, 
small  consumption  of  carbon  and  perhaps  also  of  limestone  and  soda,  and 
a high  percentage  of  nitrogen,  thus  reducing  transportation  rates  per  unit 
of  active  element. 

Comparing  these  methods  on  this  basis,  it  should  be  said  that  direct 
fixation  requires  about  one  and  one-sixth  horsepower-years  per  ton  of 
calcium  nitrate  containing  about  14  per  cent  of  nitrogen  ; calcium  cyanamide 
requires  only  about  six-tenths  horsepower-years  per  ton  of  product  contain- 
ing a slightly  larger  amount  of  nitrogen ; while  data  as  to  the  demands  of 
the  Haber  process  are  not  available. 

Direct  fixation  requires  no  carbon,  nor  does  the  Haber  process,  while 
the  cyanamide  process  does.  Direct  fixation  and  the  cyanamide  process 
both  require  limestone  (or  the  former  may  use  salt)  while  the  Haber  process 
does  not. 

Thus  in  the  case  of  direct  fixation,  the  high-power  consumption  is  prob- 
ably an  advantage  in  competition  with  Eastern  United  States  producers  but 
a disadvantage  in  competition  with  the  cheaper  power  of  Norway.  The 
high  cost  of  limestone  and  salt  in  most  parts  of  Oregon  is  a disadvantage, 
as  compared  with  the  East  and  with  Europe. 

In  the  case  of  the  cyanamide  process,  the  need  for  both  carbon  and  lime- 
stone is  a local  disadvantage  and  the  comparatively  small  demand  for  power 
would  not  draw  this  industry  to  Oregon  as  a base  of  operations  for  other 
than  the  Western  United  States  market  in  any  event. 

Little  is  known  of  the  Haber  process  except  that  it  uses  no  raw  materials 
except  water  and  air  and  a small  amount  of  power.  It  could  probably  best 
seek  a location  near  the  Eastern  centers  of  population  or  remain  in  Europe. 

There  is,  however,  one  nitrogen  product  whose  manufacture  is  remark- 
ably suited  to  local  conditions  as  compared  with  Eastern  United  States  con- 
ditions, namely,  ammonium  nitrate.  This  product  is  made  from  ammonia 
and  nitrate  acid.  The  former  could  be  produced  either  by  the  cyanamide 
process  or  the  Haber  process ; the  latter  by  direct  fixation,  thus  demanding 
a large  amount  of  power.  If  the  Haber  process  were  to  be  used  for  pro- 
ducing ammonia,  then  no  mineral  resources  locally  expensive  would  be 
demanded,  the  only  requirements  being  water,  air  and  power ; if  the  cyana- 
mide process  were  used,  carbon  in  the  form  of  charcoal  or  coke  would  be 
needed,  but  this  objection  is  small  as  compared  with  the  difficulties  sur- 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


89 


rounding  the  manufacture  of  the  metallic  nitrate  salts.  Moreover  ammonia 
nitrate  carries  over  twice  as  much  nitrogen  per  ton,  and  therefore  lends 
itself  much  better  to  meeting  the  demands  of  world  market  from  a location 
somewhat  remote  from  the  center  of  population. 

Ammonia  nitrate  not  only  carries  about  35  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  making 
it  very  rich  as  a nitrogenous  fertilizer,  but  it  also  finds  a large  and  growing 
field  of  application  in  the  manufacture  of  high  explosives ; it  can  he  used 
as  a source  of  nitric  acid  or  of  ammonia.  The  market  should  be  almost 
unlimited.  Stafford  has  estimated  its  cost  of  production  at  The  Dalles  to  be 
about  $50.00  per  ton. 

Phosphates. — Phosphorus  is  one  of  the  three  essential  elements  of  soil 
fertility.  Eighty-five  per  cent  of  the  National  reserve  of  phosphate  rock  is 
in  Idaho,  Wyoming,  Utah,  and  Montana.  There  are  two  methods  of  pre- 
paring phosphate  rock  for  use  as  a fertilizer,  one  by  treating  it  with  sul- 
phuric acid  and  one  by  the  use  of  electric  energy.  The  electrical  method 
has  been  developed  on  an  experimental  scale  and  is  evidently  believed  by 
those  in  touch  with  the  experiments  to  be  commercially  attractive,  judging 
from  the  activity  and  money  which  have  been  expended  in  acquiring  wate^ 
rights  and  promotion  of  a large  power  on  the  Saguenay  River  in  Canada, 
looking  toward  the  establishment  of  this  industry.  The  electrical  method 
yields  a product  of  much  higher  purity  than  the  sulphuric  acid  process,  thus 
adapting  itself  better  for  use  at  points  remote  from  the  market  as  in  the 
Western  phosphate  fields.  However,  the  phosphate  deposits  are  not  far 
from  the  smelting  centers  at  Anaconda.  Butte  and  Salt  Lake  City,  where 
sulphuric  acid  derived  as  a by-product  may  prove  to  be  an  important  com- 
petitor of  electricity.  Information  is  not  available  upon  which  to  base  a 
comparison. 


SUMMARY 

In  the  case  of  the  great  mass  of  small  manufacturing  industries  whose 
combined  activities  made  up  the  commercial  life  of  a large  city,  the  cost  of 
power  is  a relatively  unimportant  factor  to  be  considered  in  choosing 
between  two  factory  locations  in  widely  separated  districts,  as  for  example 
between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coast  cities  of  the  United  States ; the 
influence  of  cheaper  power  may,  however,  considerably  affect  the  choice  of 
location  as  between  two  sites  in  the  same  general  industrial  district  not 
differing  much  as  to  desirability  in  other  respects. 

If  the  product  is  for  general  public  consumption,  the  advantage  of  being 
in  the  midst  of  a region  of  large  cities  and  populous  rural  districts  is  prob- 
ably the  paramount  consideration.  For  it  is  from  such  a vantage  point  that 
the  retailer  can  be  most  quickly  supplied  and  therefore  relieved  from  the 
burden  of  carrying  a large  stock ; the  manufacturer  can  keep  in  closer 
touch  and  enjoy  more  rapid  communication  with  his  customers  and  gain 
the  advantage  of  personal  acquaintance  with  many  of  them ; labor  for 
seasonal  or  unexpected  rushes  of  business  can  be  most  easily  secured ; and 
labor  is  normally  cheaper  in  such  populous  districts ; the  cost  of  transpor- 
tation is  also  less. 

Next  in  importance  to  market  is  the  supply  of  raw  materials,  including 
coal,  but  a little  reflection  and  study  of  the  map  will  convince  the  reader 
that  these  two  conditions,  generally  speaking,  go  hand  in  hand,  the  avail- 
ability of  raw  materials,  including  the  products  of  agriculture,  conducing 


90 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


to  an  important  extent  to  the  aggregation  of  large  populous  industrial 
regions,  which  in  turn  attract  more  industries.  To  this  incentive  must  he 
added  good  distribution  facilities  and  ocean  harbors  if  the  industries  are 
to  be  predicated  to  any  important  extent  upon  foreign  trade. 

A study  of  existing  cities  indicates  clearly  that  important  general  com- 
mercial districts  are  made  by  some  special  advantage,  as  for  example,  a 
good  harbor  naturally  draining  a populous  and  prosperous  interior  or  a 
natural  distributing  center  for  a populous  district ; while  industrial  centers 
leaning  toward  some  Special  industries  are  usually  attributable  to  an  abun- 
dance of  some  raw  material,  the  exploitation  of  which  creates  a populous 
district,  which  in  turn  justifies  general  manufacturing  industries. 

The  waterpowers  of  New  England  before  the  advent  of  the  steam 
engine  were  largely  instrumental  in  the  growth  of  the  textile,  shoe,  and 
other  manufacturing  industries  here,  these  industries  generally  needing 
electricity  for  power  only,  the  Pennsylvania  coal  districts  justifying  the 
growth  of  the  Pittsburg  district  foundry,  steel,  and  machinery  industries, 
which  are  enormous  consumers  of  coal  chiefly  for  fuel  purposes  rather 
than  for  power ; the  large  Illinois  coal  fields  and  the  wonderful  tributary 
agricultural  territory,  account  for  Chicago  and  St.  Louis,  whose  large 
activities  include  the  steel  and  machinery  and  the  allied  coal-using  indus- 
tries and  the  packing  of  agricultural  products ; the  falls  of  Niagara  account 
for  the  immense  electro-metallurgical  and  electro-chemical  industries,  the 
industries  most  dependent  upon  cheap  power  in  large  amounts ; mining,  a 
good  seaport,  and  agriculture  built  San  Francisco ; agriculture  and  lumber, 
Portland ; lumber  and  Alaska  mining,  Seattle ; and  Coeur  d’Alene  mining, 
Spokane. 

The  question  then  with  which  this  paper  is  chiefly  concerned  is : “To 
what  extent  may  we  expect  the  waterpowers  of  Oregon  to  stimulate  its 
industrial  growth ; what  industries  are  sufficiently  adapted  to  local  condi- 
tions to  deserve  the  efforts  and  financial  support  of  our  citizens ; how  may 
this  support  best  be  rendered?” 

The  industries  which  have  thus  far  built  Oregon  are  lumber,  cattle  and 
sheep  raising,  and  agriculture,  fishing  and  some  pulp,  and  paper  and  mining. 
These  industries  are  predicated  upon  the  supply  of  raw  materials.  Only 
enough  water  power  has  been  developed  to  supply  light  and  street  railway 
service  to  the  citizens  together  with  the  supply  of  power  for  a few  small 
industries.  Not  one  industry  known  to  the  writer,  unless  it  be  the  paper 
and  pulp  industry,  exists  in  Oregon  as  a result  of  the  waterpower  resources 
of  the  State  which  would  not  have  existed  had  Oregon  been  devoid  of 
waterpower.  This  is  because  there  are  few  industries  to  which  power  is 
the  controlling  cost  of  production,  and  these  industries  are  busy  in  the 
East  exerting  all  the  influence  they  can  to  secure  the  release  of  more  water 
for  power  development  at  Niagara ; for  the  right  of  development  of  the 
immense  powers  on  the  St.  Lawrence  River  at  Massena,  N.  Y.,  and  for  the 
right  of  development  of  Muscle  Shoals  on  the  Tennessee  River ; Saguenay 
River  in  Quebec,  many  waterpowers  in  Montana  and  for  other  Eastern 
waterpower  privileges,  while  Oregon  waterpowers  go  almost  unoticed. 

The  reasons  are  that  we  have  no  coal  fields  to  supply  coke  needed  by 
the  foundry,  steel,  and  machinery  industries  and  which  material  cannot  be 
replaced  by  waterpower  except  to  a limited  extent ; we  have  only  a limited 
supply  of  limestone  and  this  not  readily  accessible  and  expensive  for  use 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


91 


as  flux  in  the  metallurgical  industries ; we  have  no  important  copper  and 
zinc  mines,  which  are  rapidly  utilizing  the  waterpowers  of  Montana ; we 
have,  to  be  sure,  a large  but  not  yet  highly  developed  agricultural  region,  the 
products  of  which  do  not  yet  require  an  immense  industry  for  packing  and 
marketing,  and  which  has  not  yet  to  be  supplied  with  innumerable  necessi- 
ties manufactured  in  nearby  cities;  we  are  not  at  the  natural  gateway  or 
on  the  natural  route  of  transportation  for  any  important  proportion  of  the 
existing  foreign  trade  of  the  United  States,  although  there  is  every  reason 
to  believe  that  our  trade  will  grow  immensely ; we  have  very  few  of  the 
raw  materials  of  the  electro-chemical  and  electro-metallurgical  industries 
whose  consumption  of  hydroelectric  power  is  becoming  tremendous ; we 
have  no  great  tributary  area  of  dense  population  to  be  supplied  with  manu- 
factured products.  For  the  general  manufacturer  the  local  and  West  coast 
market  is  small  and  the  Eastern  market  is  out  of  reach  in  competition  with 
Eastern  industries  under  cheaper  labor  and  transportation  conditions.  The 
only  compensating  advantage  is  the  cost  to  his  Eastern  competitor  of  trans1 
porta tion  to  the  West.  This  feature  tends  to  make  each  supreme  in  his  own 
territory  to  an  extent  depending  upon  the  proportion  which  transportation 
bears  to  the  value  of  the  product.  But  the  smaller  volume  of  production  for 
the  Western  manufacturer  again  operates  to  so  increase  his  costs  as  to 
largely,  if  not  at  times  entirely,  offset  this  differential. 

Thus  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  chief  handicap  which  has  been 
discussed  in  each  of  the  industries  in  this  paper,  except  the  absence  of  raw 
materials,  is  the  limited  market.  It  has  been  necessary  in  this  paper  to 
consider  chiefly  present  conditions,  hut  it  is  true  that  in  regions  of  agricul- 
tural resources,  such  as  Oregon,  an  increase  in  market  is  inevitable,  and 
moreover  the  effect  of  industry  is  itself  reactive.  Industrial  expansion 
requires  an  increase  in  market,  and  therefore  in  population,  and  an 
increased  population  cannot  subsist  except  with  industries  to  furnish 
employment,  and  to  create  cities  to  consume  the  products  of  agriculture. 

Also  to  a variable  extent  industries  are  interdependent.  Few  manufac- 
turers make  all  the  parts  of  their  product,  but  preferably  sublet  much  of 
the  work  to  specialists.  If  a manufacturer  requires  brass  castings,  for 
example,  he  must  have  use  for  enough  such  to  justify  him  in  equipping  a 
brass  foundry  and  keeping  it  busy,  or  he  could  more  advantageously  subhit 
this  work  to  a specialist,  who,  together  with  such  work  from  other  manu- 
facturers, could  operate  such  a foundry  to  capacity. 

Thus  the  growth  of  a general  industrial  district  is  gradual ; is  inter- 
dependent upon  other  industries ; is  reactive  in  its  effect  and  is  funda- 
mentally based  upon  the  existence  of  a region  rich  in  agriculture,  raw 
materials  of  manufacture,  mineral  resources,  or  with  a strategic  commercial 
location.  Only  in  a comparatively  few  industries  is  it  dependent  to  any 
important  extent  upon  hydroelectric  power. 

What  then,  if  any,  is  the  industrial  future  of  Oregon  as  of  interest  .o 
the  utilization  of  our  wasting  waterpower,  and  how  can  the  State  and 
public-spirited  citizens  be  of  assistance  to  promote  the  desired  end?  In 
the  opinion  of  the  writer  the  desired  end  can  be  realized  only  through 
sacrifice,  real  work,  and  financial  support  by  the  citizens  of  Oregon.  The 
public  has  long  recognized  the  value  of  public  support  for  agriculture 
taking  the  form  of  experimental  research  on  plant  and  insect  life,  public  aid 
to  irrigation,  etc.  But  unfortunately  in  the  mind  of  many  the  name  “man- 


92 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


ufacturer”  suggests  the  mental  picture  of  the  octopus ; the  picture  of  dis- 
honest wealth  as  contrasted  with  the  honest  poverty  of  the  farmer.  This 
feeling  cannot  he  too  strongly  discouraged.  We  must  have  manufacturers 
and  we  must  have  a large  urban  population  to  create  a home  market  for 
the  products  of  agriculture;  neither  can  flourish  without  the  other.  The 
public  must  realize  that  the  local  initial  handicaps  for  most  industries  are 
such  as  to  require  the  maximum  of  public  encouragement  if  we  are  ever 
to  have  industrial  development. 

In  the  opinion  of  the  writer  increase  in  population  must  come  first 
through  expansion  of  agriculture  and  the  utilization  of  our  forest  products, 
which  activities  will  gradually  demand  an  increasing  supply  of  equipment, 
and  manufactured  supplies,  thus  increasing  the  market  for  existing  indus- 
tries and  gradually  justifying  new  ones;  these  industries  will  react  to 
increase  the  market  for  our  hydroelectric  power  rather  than  the  powers 
attracting  the  industries. 

However,  the  prospect  of  the  successful  introduction  of  several  electro- 
metallurgical and  electro-chemical  industries  appears  to  be  sufficiently 
promising  to  justify  every  legitimate  effort  to  promote  them,  and  in  this 
case  our  waterpowers  would  be  one  of  the  attractions  to  the  industry. 
Other  industries  offering  such  possible  prospects  are  in  an  experimental 
stage  of  development  but  if  perfected  would  become  immense  consumers  of 
hydroelectric  power  and  are  better  suited  to  local  resources  than  most  of 
the  developed  industries. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  we  have  competition  in  the  supply  of  hydro- 
electric power.  There  is  no  doubt  in  the  mind  of  the  writer  that  popular 
objection  must  eventually  yield  to  economic  progress  and  permit  the  utili- 
zation of  Niagara  to  the  extent  of  the  minimum  flow.  This  would  yield 
at  least  1,000,000  more  horsepower.  The  St.  Lawrence  at  Massena,  N.  Y.. 
would  yield  a reported  1,000,000  horsepower ; the  Saguenay  River  in 
Quebec,  some  300,000  horsepower,  and  Muscle  Shoals  on  the  Tennessee 
River  is  also  large.  The  only  Oregon  powers  which  could  bid  successfully 
for  recognition  by  the  chemical  and  metallurgical  industries  would  be  those 
of  the  Deschutes,  Columbia  and  Snake  Rivers  with  perhaps  one  or  two 
smaller  ones  on  the  Rogue  and  Klamath  Rivers.  Some  of  these  large 
powers  could  undoubtedly  generate  power  more  cheaply  than  Niagara,  or  at 
least  well  under  the  selling  price  at  Niagara,  but  information  is  not  avail- 
able for  a comparison  with  the  other  powers  referred  to.  The  eastern 
powers  referred  to  are,  however,  in  most  cases  in  a populous  region  with 
abundant  coke,  limestone,  and  salt,  which  enter  into  most  of  the  chemical 
processes.  Their  location  near  the  market  also  justifies  nearly  all  of  these 
electric  industries,  and  their  competition  with  Oregon  powers  for  priority 
of  development  will  be  difficult  to  meet.  Moreover,  the  few  industries  of 
this  class  which  are  reported  favorably  by  Stafford  and  Lyons  in  the 
Columbia  River  Power  Project  Report  herein  referred  to  would  not  con- 
sume in  the  aggregate  enough  power  to  justify  one  of  the  larger  develop- 
ments unless  some  of  those  now  in  an  experimental  stage,  as  ammonium 
phosphate  and  ammonium  nitrate  could  be  perfected. 

The  condition  which  compelled  Stafford  and  Lyons  to  report  unfavorably 
on  most  of  these  industries  wTas  the  absence  of  local  supplies  and  cost  of 
obtaining  distant  supplies  of  coke,  limestone,  salt,  bauxite,  iron  ore.  etc. 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


93 


Tlie  possible  extent  of  development  of  miscellaneous  small  manufactur- 
ing industries  in  Oregon  is  limited  in  general  by  the  limitations  of  the 
local  and  West  coast  markets,  although  local  manufactures  should  be 
able  to  share  some  of  the  Oriental  trade  with  direct  transportation  lines. 
The  success  of  such  manufacturing  adventures  depends  primarily  upon 
manufacturing  efficiency  and  commercial  genius  for  organization,  manage- 
ment, and  advertising.  Such  industries  would  labor  under  a handicap  as 
compared  with  Eastern  competitors  except  perhaps  for  local  trade,  and  it 
must  be  clearly  borne  in  mind  by  the  people  of  Oregon  that  such  industries 
are  not  going  to  locate  in  Oregon  because  of  hydroelectric  power,  nor  can 
it  be  expected  that  much  outside  capital  can  be  interested  on  any  pretext. 
Such  industries  will  develop  here  chiefly  to  the  extent  that  Oregon  citizens 
are  willing  to  support  them  financially. 

The  class  of  industries  which  utilize  our  raw  materials  and  our  agri- 
cultural products  should  be  encouraged  by  the  public  to  every  legitimate 
extent.  Oregon  should  have  an  industrial  experiment  station  in  addition  to 
its  agricultural  experiment  station.  This  station  should  have  an  able  corps 
of  specialists  provided  with  ample  funds.  One  of  their  problems  would  be 
to  find  a use  for  wood  refuse.  This  might  perhaps  be  accomplished  by  a 
distillation  process  using  part  of  the  refuse  as  fuel  to  distill  the  remainder 
and  obtaining  therefrom  acetic  acid,  sugar  of  lime,  wood  alcohol,  turpentine, 
and  several  other  articles  of  commerce,  with  much  needed  charcoal  as  a 
residue.  The  system  would  need  to  be  adapted  to  installation  at  each  mill 
as  the  wood  refuse  would  be  too  expensive  to  transport.  It  is  possible 
that  the  sawdust  could  be  removed  by  blower  and  the  larger  pieces  chipped 
by  machinery  and  all  then  digested  to  form  “sulphite  pulp”  to  supplement 
“ground  wood  pulp”  for  paper  manufacture,  or  that  the  refuse  itself  might 
be  ground  if  appropriate  machinery  could  be  devised.  Whatever  its  nature, 
it  is  certain  that  a use  for  wood  refuse  is  of  paramount  importance  and  the 
commercial  problem  of  producing  to  compete  with  such  products  elsewhere 
is  not  less  difficult  than  the  technical  one.  Another  industry  deserving 
support  is  the  milling  of  woolens,  and  perhaps  linen.  We  should  refine 
every  agricultural  product  to  its  final  market  form  before  permitting  it 
to  leave  Oregon.  We  should  mill  our  own  wheat  and.  ship  it  as  flour ; we 
should  make  starch ; we  should  pack  our  own  meat ; can  all  the  fruit  not 
consumed  as  fresh  fruit ; manufacture  furniture  with  such  local  timber  as 
is  suitable  for  the  purpose : and  many  similar  operations. 

By  the  development  of  such  industries  using  native  resources,  we  should 
so  increase  our  population  as  to  improve  the  market  for  and  thus  stimulate 
every  other  industry. 

The  industrial  experiment  situation  and  industrial  commission  should 
devote  themselves  to  producing  carbon  at  reasonable  cost.  One  method  by 
utilizing  wood  refuse  has  already  been  suggested.  The  possibility  of  obtain- 
ing coking  coal  from  Alaska  should  be  investigated,  also  the  possibility  of 
iron  ore  from  China  and  perhaps  bauxite  from  India.  Reducing  aluminum 
from  other  minerals  than  bauxite  is  a worthy  study.  The  commercial 
possibilities  of  potash  from  kelp  and  salt  from  Oregon  lakes  should  be 
studied.  Congress  should  be  urged  to  extend  the  Columbia  and  Snake 
River  improvements  to  make  the  rivers  navigable  for  a tow  of  limestone 
barges  from  the  mouth  of  the  Grande  Ronde  on  the  Snake  or  from  the 
limestone  deposits  on  the  upper  Columbia. 


94 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


Tlie  desirability  of  developing  an  ocean-going  barge  similar  to  the  large 
ore  boats  on  the  Great  Lakes  to  carry  limestone  from  the  islands  of  Puget 
Sound,  iron  ore  from  China,  coal  from  Alaska  or  Vancouver  Island,  etc., 
can  not  be  too  strongly  emphasized  as  related  to  the  chemical  industries, 
and  indeed  all  industrial  development  of  Oregon. 

The  Columbia,  Snake,  and  Deschutes  Rivers  are  believed  by  the  writer 
to  offer  several  opportunities  for  large  power  developments  within  the 
limits  of  cost  which  would  attract  chemical  industries  if  the  raw  materials 
were  available,  but  this  region  is  greatly  handicapped  in  this  respect. 

The  Columbia  River,  as  far  as  Cascade  Rapids,  is  suitable  for  ocean 
draft  navigation,  and  this  site,  if  a dam  proves  economically  and  technically 
feasible,  is  a strategic  location  for  chemical  industries  except  for  the  local 
supply  of  raw  materials,  as  there  are  few  large  power  sites  anywhere 
where  ocean  boats  can  touch  with  raw  materials  and  return  with  the 
manufactured  products.  This  asset  might  indeed  largely  offset  the  cost  of 
bringing  in  the  raw  materials.  With  the  development  of  Cascade  Rapids 
should  be  included  the  construction  of  a lock  to  extend  ocean  navigation  to 
The  Dalles,  thus  adding  the  transportation  asset  to  The  Dalles  project. 

The  writer  believes  that  the  industrial  development  of  Oregon  requires 
State  support.  Import  duties  from  other  states  are  prohibited  by  the 
Constitution.  State  aid  might  be  extended  in  the  form  of  bonuses  on 
general  production ; subsidy  for  transportation  lines  touching  at  Oregon 
ports  and  bringing  in  needed  raw  materials ; exemption  from  taxation  fo'- 
a period  of  years ; a paid  industrial  commission  and  industrial  experiment 
station ; free  factory  sites,  and  even  by  State  guarantee  of  securities  or 
purchase  of  a part  of  the  securities.  A few  years  ago  the  man  who  would 
advocate  state  or  even  Federal  aid  for  irrigation  was  considered  an  extreme 
socialist,  seeking  to  have  the  government  encroach  upon  the  legitimate 
field  of  banking.  We  now  find  that  irrigation  projects  cannot  often  stand 
the  financial  strain  of  the  development  years,  faced  with  high  rates  of 
interest,  and  we  see  the  ablest  bankers  of  Oregon  publicly  advocating  State 
aid.  Truly,  “necessity  makes  strange  bedfellows.” 

This  is  equally  true  of  industrial  development  in  general,  and  the  writer 
believes  that  it  must  be  recognized  and  proper  encouragement  given  before 
industrial  development  can  be  expected. 

Bonuses,  free  factory  sites  and  exemption  from  taxation  for  several 
years  are  common  offers  made  by  Eastern  cities  to  prospective  industries. 
In  Oregon  every  available  factory  site  goes  soaring  in  price  at  the  first 
intimation  of  a “prospect.”  Statesmen  clamor  for  more  factories  to  increase 
the  taxable  wealth,  and  the  average  citizen  is  so  optimistic  as  to  believe 
that  the  whole  industrial  East  is  pining  for  an  opportunity  to  come  to 
Oregon,  and  that  the  stampede  is  just  about  to  begin ; but  like  tomorrow,  it 
never  comes. 

Oregon  cannot  hope  for  industrial  development  by  flooding  the  East  with 
advertising  literature  showing  pictures  of  waterfalls.  The  State  should 
take  from  the  “wildcat”  promoter  the  business  of  advertising  Oregon.  It 
should,  through  cooperation  with  the  Federal  government,  extend  stream 
flow  measurements;  investigate,  through  competent  engineers,  the  cost  of 
development  and  generation  of  power  at  Oregon  power  sites ; publish  high 
grade  technical  and  nonpolitical  reports  on  the  projects,  making  the  money 
so  expended  a lien  against  the  rights  of  development. 


PRIMER  OF  ELECTRICITY 


95 


This  work  and  that  of  the  industrial  experiment  station  should  be 
entrusted  to  a paid  industrial  commission,  consisting  of  an  hydroelectric 
engineer,  an  industrial  engineer,  a chemical  engineer,  a metallugical  engi- 
neer, and  an  attorney,  with  an  advisory  unpaid  board  of  prominent  business 
men,  not  members  of  the  Legislature,  and  having  only  advisory  powers. 

This  commission  should  be  of  the  same  high  grade  demanded  of  public 
utility  commissioners,  and  should  have  broad  executive  powers  within 
limits  prescribed  by  the  Legislature  in  the  matter  of  negotiating  contracts 
with  industries,  paying  bonuses,  organizing  and  assisting  industrial  enter- 
prises, etc. 

I do  not  wish  by  the  above  remarks  to  discourage  sound  industrial 
development  in  Oregon.  I do  wish,  however,  to  correct  the  generally- 
prevailing  local  belief  that,  because  of  cheaper  power  and  the  Panama 
Canal,  our  cities  are  soon  destined  to  become  great  manufacturing  centers, 
bidding  for  Eastern  United  States  and  foreign  trade.  This  popular  miscon- 
ception leads  to  ruinous  stock  jobbing  and  exploitation  of  the  credulous 
Eastern  and  local  small  investors,  but  more  particularly  also  the  false 
advertising  of  the  local  opportunities,  unwarranted  booms,  inflation  of 
realty  values  and  consequent  periodical  collapses. 


J 


01 


2 105762592 


